How are our oceans Are there plenty of fish in the sea Research Paper

How are our oceans Are there plenty of fish in the sea - Research Paper Example The other major problem that has resulted in the displeasing state of the oceans as it stands currently is the issue of overfishing. This vice has also resulted in the reduction of the viable offspring of the major fish species that are endangered, resulting in further endangerment of the marine life (NRDC, 2011). Further, the oceans have now become a source of health risk for the human population, owing to the sedimentation of the plastic, heavy metals and other pollutants in the beaches and in the rivers, which eventually finds way into human homes. The result is that there is a high risk of health associated with the ocean pollution (NRDC, 2014). In this respect, the state of the ocean is not suitable is not in good shape, and thus there is a need to address this problem, lest the ocean eventually fails to support life. Are there plenty of fish in the sea?   The saying that there is plenty fish in the ocean does not hold any more in the modern world. This is because, with the cu rrent trend of ocean pollution and dangerous fishing practices, there will be virtually no wild fish in the oceans by 2050 (NGS, 2014). One of the major problems that are causing the decline in the population of the fish in the oceans is the high demand for seafood globally, considering that fish meat is not associated with high cholesterol levels. Thus, combined with the effects of pollution in the ocean and the subsequent climate change, the whole environmental setting has become less supportive for marine life.

Acoustical Characterization of Porous Materials for Automotive Research Paper

Acoustical Characterization of Porous Materials for Automotive Application - Research Paper Example There exists diversity when it comes to porous materials either artificial or natural. Sintered, steel wool, perforated materials and fiber metal are among the porous materials that have been increasingly used in automotive noise control. Following the diversity and variety of porous material characteristics, the study of porous media has proved to be wide and interesting. The review begins with outlining and comparing the models that are intended to be used in predicting the fundamental acoustical characteristics that are applicable in automotive. The paper introduces both the theoretical, empirical and numerical modeling and demonstrates how the models are used to determine the acoustic characteristics of porous materials. The analytical models indicate that the solid constituents of porous material are rigid and the fluid constituents are similar to that of a homogenous isotropic fluid that has been modified. The review also considers the acoustical characterization of porous mate rials and goes further to look at the porous materials modeling while having particular interests on porous materials that are elastic. The fundamental characteristics of porous materials are then illustrated using computational and experimental examples . Introduction In automotive, absorptive materials have various applications in different locations. Absorber pads can serve effectively in several locations such as in the door panel, pillar trim, headliner and bellow the carpet. Porous materials like fibers and foams are normally used in such applications. There acoustic characteristics enable them to serve as absorbers. It is the viscous losses that results in the conversion of energy to heat while sound waves navigate through the fibers or pores that are interconnected in the material. A porous material that is bonded with a barrier that is non-porous conducts the sound energy in waves that are in form of structure-borne. The characteristics which have the desirable influence on this wave form are the structural loss and bulk stiffness (Allard, 1993,p. 56). With reference to automotive applications, absorption is preferred at frequencies that are lower while the weight and thickness are to be limited. Porous materials with air flows resistance that are specific yet different have been identified as to achieve the results that are desired. However, the action of decreasing or increasing the given air flow resistance in order to achieve low frequency results affect high frequency performances. The review thus gives a presentation of a number of different material’s studies which illustrate such behavior. Several models such as the penalization approach demonstrate this behavior by simulating fluids inside and porous regions surrounding the obstacle. Such models are easy to implement and do not need a body fitting or a specific interface treatment. The models are successfully used in the introduction of new passive control methods that entail the imple mentation of a porous layer in between the fluid and the blue-body so as to change the characteristics of the boundary layer. Such a passive control model results in regularization that is drastic especially when it comes to high Reynolds numbers (Allard, 1992, p. 3349). Porous materials come in two phases, namely; the fibrous solid component termed as the frame and the interstitial fluid located in the pores resulting from the frame. Following their low density, porous materials cannot be generally used to make barriers but are commonly applied in the making of materials that absorb

Effect of changing government on Russian citizens before and after the Research Paper

Effect of changing government on Russian citizens before and after the fall of the Soviet Union - Research Paper Example In 1991 the people of Russia gained their electoral rights. However at what cost that right came is an important question. Reasons for choosing Soviet Union Every country during its transformation process undergoes economic turmoil. Russia had been a country that had experienced transformation of its political, economic, and social scenario several times in history. However the collapse of the Soviet Union had been a unique phenomenon. We want to study the effects of such collapse on the economic condition of the people. However unavailability of reliable data makes us do a both qualitative and quantitative study. (Ra’anan) Background: the fall of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was formed in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. During that time the Joseph Stalin had exhibited his despotic rules. From 1953-64 Nikita Krushchev tried out her reforms but failed to make many changes. The reforms were not necessarily in the direction of liberalization. During this p eriod the atrocities of the police was relaxed and the townsmen achieved a comparatively higher standard of living. The peasants were controlled by the state through the collective farms. They were the focus of much of the states concern, though that did not help their condition very much. The intellectual and the cultural life at the time of Khrushchev also performed fairly well. The educated and the civil society n the 1960s for the first time could express their desires. They expressed a desire to free themselves from the omnipresence of the state and gain individual autonomy. The rule of Kruschev saw the prevalence of oligarchy. His successor Brezchnev heightened the process becoming the chief oligarch within the ruling class. (Ra’anan, 77) From 1964 to 1982 Soviet Union saw an improvement in the material standards of their lives. However the state presence in the public life of the people was resumed. Censorship and the control of police came back. The ideologies of the parties found fewer takers from the common people. The detachment was aggravated by the growing corruption within the ranks of the party. As agriculture got less and less attention from the government investment in heavy industries and military kept rising. The non-Russian people had a growing discontent over several issues. After 1985 the controls of the state were taken over by a new group of leaders. They were the young leaders within the party. The dynamic leader Mikhail Gorbachev represented this pragmatic group of leaders. These people believed in reforms. They received an opposition within the ranks of their own party. The reformist policies of the group were in contrast to the hardliners. Gorbachev wanted to rejuvenate the country’s economy and political scenario through a series of reforms and turned to the intelligentsia for support. The former rule of control was relaxed and expression of ideas was relaxed. This led to a number of problems for the government as the civil society searched answers for the abuses of the previous governments. Under pressure the party moved towards a more pluralistic policy and constitutional government. In spite of all the changes and reforms undertaken by the government, the Gorbachev rule ceased to exist. The central institution was ruined and the people belonging to minor communities raised their voice in nationalist sentiment. The final demise came about in 1991. (Keep, 2-3)

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 18

History - Essay Example Death because the bubonic strain is typified by â€Å"large, inflamed lymph nodes around the neck, groin and armpits† that would turn black with the progression of the disease (Hayden, â€Å"History of The Black Death†). The spread of the disease was fast and crossed countries and continents within months as rat fleas feeding on infected black rats, causing the fleas to hunger for more sources of blood, were transported through ships that sailed from the East to the West (Hayden, â€Å"History of The Black Death†). Combined with the unsanitary conditions of the cities back then and contagion became inevitable. â€Å"The violence of this disease was such that the sick communicated it to the healthy who came near them, just as a fire catches anything dry or oily near it† (â€Å"The Black Death, 1348†). This was evidenced by black flags that were hung on villages and towns that were infected by the plague; almost everywhere these black flags were seen flying in the air (Butler, â€Å"The Black Death and its Impact (c.1300-1450)†). The rapid devastation of village and city populations created an aura of doom and fear—experiences that were never forgotten and gotten over with. Entire families died; survivors did not even have time to mourn their loved ones as the fear of contacting the disease was all-consuming (Holmes 249). People were forced to throw their loved ones in mass graves of ditches without a proper burial ceremony and even a hastened prayer (Holmes 249; James, â€Å"Black Death: The lasting impact†). â€Å"And there were those who had been so poorly covered with earth that dogs dragged them from there and through the city and fed on corpses† (qtd. in Holmes 249). Experiences like this are etched into the memory of the people and has inadvertently affected the psyche and morale of not only the individual, but of populations worldwide. This has resulted to a change in the way of living, especially for the peasants who were affected greatly as they did not have the

Effect of changing government on Russian citizens before and after the Research Paper

Effect of changing government on Russian citizens before and after the fall of the Soviet Union - Research Paper Example In 1991 the people of Russia gained their electoral rights. However at what cost that right came is an important question. Reasons for choosing Soviet Union Every country during its transformation process undergoes economic turmoil. Russia had been a country that had experienced transformation of its political, economic, and social scenario several times in history. However the collapse of the Soviet Union had been a unique phenomenon. We want to study the effects of such collapse on the economic condition of the people. However unavailability of reliable data makes us do a both qualitative and quantitative study. (Ra’anan) Background: the fall of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was formed in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. During that time the Joseph Stalin had exhibited his despotic rules. From 1953-64 Nikita Krushchev tried out her reforms but failed to make many changes. The reforms were not necessarily in the direction of liberalization. During this p eriod the atrocities of the police was relaxed and the townsmen achieved a comparatively higher standard of living. The peasants were controlled by the state through the collective farms. They were the focus of much of the states concern, though that did not help their condition very much. The intellectual and the cultural life at the time of Khrushchev also performed fairly well. The educated and the civil society n the 1960s for the first time could express their desires. They expressed a desire to free themselves from the omnipresence of the state and gain individual autonomy. The rule of Kruschev saw the prevalence of oligarchy. His successor Brezchnev heightened the process becoming the chief oligarch within the ruling class. (Ra’anan, 77) From 1964 to 1982 Soviet Union saw an improvement in the material standards of their lives. However the state presence in the public life of the people was resumed. Censorship and the control of police came back. The ideologies of the parties found fewer takers from the common people. The detachment was aggravated by the growing corruption within the ranks of the party. As agriculture got less and less attention from the government investment in heavy industries and military kept rising. The non-Russian people had a growing discontent over several issues. After 1985 the controls of the state were taken over by a new group of leaders. They were the young leaders within the party. The dynamic leader Mikhail Gorbachev represented this pragmatic group of leaders. These people believed in reforms. They received an opposition within the ranks of their own party. The reformist policies of the group were in contrast to the hardliners. Gorbachev wanted to rejuvenate the country’s economy and political scenario through a series of reforms and turned to the intelligentsia for support. The former rule of control was relaxed and expression of ideas was relaxed. This led to a number of problems for the government as the civil society searched answers for the abuses of the previous governments. Under pressure the party moved towards a more pluralistic policy and constitutional government. In spite of all the changes and reforms undertaken by the government, the Gorbachev rule ceased to exist. The central institution was ruined and the people belonging to minor communities raised their voice in nationalist sentiment. The final demise came about in 1991. (Keep, 2-3)

Health Care Spending Essay Example for Free

Health Care Spending Essay â€Å"Historically, U.S. health care spending has grown at rates exceeding the economy’s growth rate, often by at least 2 percentage points per year† (Holahan McMorrow, 2012, 393). Recently, it seems that the rate of health care spending has slowed down a little, though no reasons can be pinpointed as to why this is. There are many factors that affect the growth of health care spending, and plenty of solutions have been proposed to help improve this issue. Factors such as advancements in medical technology and an increase in the price of prescription drugs cause health care costs to rise year after year. Solutions have been presented and implemented, like Medicare and Medicaid and managed care plans, however, even these components have added to the health care spending issue. With all the discussion and debate, one thing can be agreed upon, something needs to be done. In recent years both public and private payers have experienced an inclement rise health care spending that has exceeded income growth. This growth started right after the end of World War II and has continue to increase every ten years, health care spending has exceeded the gross domestic products (GDP) which had a projection of 26% by 2035 taken for health care spending, prior the health care reform was passed. This number is only going to continue increasing, which bring in the importance of control the spending since the nation’s long-term fiscal balance will be determined by the future rate growth in health care cost. According to Chernew (2010) the primary determinant of spending growth is the development and diffusion of new medical technology. However this does not imply the establishment of new technology rather focuses on how to use it with technologies and systems already in use, in other words make it compatible to work together. The diversity of technologies contributing to spending growth generates a diversity of pathways by which technology increases spending. These includes high unit cost driven capital cost or the need for specialized labor, high volume, or cost related to complementary services. Because the past rate of health care spending growth is not sustainable, both private and public payers will take action to lower spending. Those actions may not necessary alter the forces that historically have driven up spending, but they will be designed to address the immediate problem of high sending. There are many options from cost sharing from patients, reductions in payments to Medicare Advantage, fee reductions under the new payment rules implemented with Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. On the article there is a suggestion that I find interesting about Global payments, which is an alternate form of bundled payments which is a program use to pay a fixed fee for a set of services related to a specific episode of care. This might be a good solution for the situation we are facing now, because it would give providers the opportunity to profit with reduced revenue, and even share some of the savings form not using health care services. Yet in order for bundled payments system to be successful the need of having the proper tools to improve the efficiency of care. Many providers will be able to develop these tools, but it would require partnership between facilities, physicians, and insurers. For the system to be successful it would have to carefully manage practice pattern changes due to new technology, adjusting aggressiveness based on the generosity of bundled payments updates. If bundled payments encourage efficiencies, they may reduce the level of spending more than spending growth, and that is exactly the area we as country need to be working on. According to President Obama, â€Å"We do not have a spending problem; we have a health care problem†. This statement was alarming to many Americans. The President feels that healthcare spending on the aging population is the number one fiscal problem. Then why is the solution taking so long? With Obamacare, Medicare will see cuts up to $716 billion. Where will this leave the Americans who receive Medicare? How can they still receive health care with this much of a cut? Will Providers be willing to provide the same high level of care with the high cut to their expected fees? There is no way of knowing if this will even solve the health care spending problem or if it will create even larger problems for Americans. Budget cuts will be needed in other areas to make these cuts to health care spending improve the financial state of our country (Galupo, 2013). According to New Republic’s Jonathan Cohn, the new health care reform addresses the cost of health care rather than health care spending. He argues the proposed spending cuts will address the health care spending problem along with other budget cuts. Obamacare may not be a good solution to the current health care spending problem in America. Many suggest that the new law’s affect on provider reimbursement rates will have a huge impact on access to care for many seniors. This can greatly affect the health of our aging population. Spending cuts projected for Medicare and Medicaid will help that aspect of health care spending but with the added subsidies for people to purchase private health insurance, the savings just do not add up. When it comes to health care spending there is much controversy on what increases health care cost, what measures we can take to keep health care cost down, and what actions we can take to make health care affordable without limiting health care. According to kaiserEDU.org the chart provided below shows how costing allocates throughout the nation. â€Å"Hospital care and physician services combined added up for half (51%) of the nation’s health expenditures.† Below is a diagram from the year 2010 of the nation’s health expenditures. National Health Expenditures, 2010 Totaling up = $2.3 Trillion Some major growth health care costs include a rise in chronic disease, administrative cost, or technology or prescription cost, although there may be many more expenditure that adds up to the growth in health care cost these three have been discussed to have the biggest effect on the nation. As technology continues to advance over the years to come, we may face more health care struggles, so being prepared for the unexpected leads to a healthy future. Health care spending continues to be a concern for most Americans. â€Å"The nation’s efforts to control health care costs have not had much long-term effect, prompting a debate over what proposals are actually able to reduce for the long-term. Approaches are largely divided by debate over a stronger role for government regulation or market-based models that encourage greater competition† (kaiseredu.org). Plans such as Obamacare are being implemented, but these plans are not solving the problem. Political debates and public discussions will continue as people try to figure out what factors are responsible for this problem and what solutions are truly aimed at achieving optimal health care at affordable costs. References Chernew, M. (2010). Health Care Spending Growth: Can We Avoid Fiscal Armageddon?. Inquiry,47(4), 285-295. Galupo, Scott, 2013, Let’s Split the Difference: We Have a Healthcare Spending Problem, The American Conservative, Retrieved February 14, 2013: http://www.theamericanconservative.com/lets-split-the-difference-we-have-a-healthcare-spending-problem/ Holahan, J. McMorrow, S. (2012). Medicare and Medicaid spending trends and the deficit debate. The New England Journal of Medicine, 367(5), 393- 395. Senger, Alyenne, 3013, No, Obamacare Does Not Lower Health Care Spending , The Founder, Retrieved February 16, 2013: http://blog.heritage.org/2013/02/12/no-obamacare-does-not-lower-health-carespending/ The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (n.d.). U.S. Health Care Costs. Retrieved from http://www.kaiseredu.org.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Conditional Fee Arrangements Law Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Conditional Fee Arrangements Law Essay UK legal aid system has undergone tremendous changes and reforms ever since its introduction in 1949. Its purpose of the act was to provide legal advice for those of slender means and resource, so that no one will be financially unable to prosecute a trust and reasonable claim or defend a legal right and to allow solicitors and counsel to be remunerated.  [1]  Due to its popularity, legal aid expenditure imposed a heavy burden on the government. In solving this problem, the UK legal aid system undergone various reforms. Conditional Fee Arrangement (hereafter CFA) was a result of one of these reforms after half a decade when legal aid act created. Ever since its introduction in 1990, CFA has been a controversial topic among legal educators. In determining the success of the CFA system, it cannot be easily determined purely by its utility rate, but ethics issue must also looked into. The numerous pros and cons of the scheme opened the door for criticism and professor to criticize. The history of legal aid dates back to 1949. After Second World War, it was recognized that equality of access and the right to representation before the law was fundamental to a just society. Hence, the Rushcliffe Committee made a number of recommendations that led to the establishment of the first legal aid scheme by the Legal Aid and Legal Advice Act 1949. The purpose of the legal aid scheme, as Lord Steyn once said is a principle of our law that every citizen has a right of unimpeded access to a court.  [2]  Generally, the legal aid scheme was a success. It achieved its purpose in ensuring that the public obtains access to justice. However, from the view of the State, the scheme was imposing heavy burden on the government. It is worth to point out that legal aid funding is placed very low in the political agenda as generally it does not favor anyone as compared to medical and education funding. As a result, Lord Irvine suggested capping a ceiling on legal aid funding. Since c apping the budget for criminal legal aid is against human rights, the only choice will be to first cover all cost in Criminal legal aid and civil legal aid will be funded by the leftovers.  [3]  In view of this, Lord XXX introduced CFA in the Court and Legal Services Act in 1990. The CLSA Act provided a statutory basis for parties to litigation to enter into CFA for a limited number of proceedings. Not until the Conditional Fee Arrangement in 1995 that it was released to different types of proceedings including personal injury, bankruptcy, insolvency and human rights cases. In 1998, subsidiary legislation has greatly widened the range of proceedings where CFA are permissible to cover most of the civil cases except for those specified in the CLSA act, which are mostly related to crime and family legislation. Today, majority of personal injury cases are funded by CFA under the amendment of Access to Justice Act 1999. CFA is an alternative to legal aid. It enables those without the necessary resources or with risk averse tendencies to take forward claims for compensation. It is an agreement whereby a lawyer and a client can agree to share the risk of the litigation by coming to a financial arrangement on the fee payable based on the outcome of the litigation. In the event of losing, the client will not be liable to pay any fee to their lawyer, but if the case is won, normal cost are payable. Although the client is required to pay the fee when winning the case, but it may be recoverable in full or in part from the losing party. Unlike Contingency Fee Arrangement, which is common in USA, CFA does not allow solicitor to claim a percentage of the winning. Instead, lawyers are allowed to charge the usual rate plus uplift if the case is successful. Conditional fee arrangements developed as a result of the proposed reduction in public funding for civil litigation and the fear that the abolition of legal aid would reduce access to justice for many. Access to justice is when people do need help, there are effective solutions that are proportionate to the issues at stake. In some circumstances, this will involve going to court; but in others, that will not be necessary. Someone charged with a criminal offence should have access to proper legal advice and representation, when the interests of justice require it. But in civil matters, for most people, most of the time, going to court is, and should be, the last resort. It is in no-ones interest to create a litigious society. People must make responsible choices about whether a case is worth pursuing; whether to proceed by negotiation, court action, or in some other way; and how far to take a relatively minor issue. This is one of the major advantages, which is also the purpose, of CFA and the legal aid system. A conditional fee agreement is therefore a very useful method of funding litigation as in many cases the prospective litigant may not have the financial resources to fund the case and may not qualify for legal aid. It is particularly important in personal injury cases as these claims cannot be funded by legal aid and as such many litigants would not have had legal redress owing to the lack of funding. Given the high cost of litigation in Hong Kong, those in the middle-income group whose means are above the limits set down by the Legal Aid Scheme and the Supplementary Legal Aid Scheme would have difficulty financing litigation. The second advantages of CFA is that it could reduce the cost of legal aid funding and that it could refocus legal aid by removing cases which can be financed in some other way and promoting access to justice for the need by directing the aid budget to priority areas. This will allow the Government ultimately to concentrate publicly funded support on legal services towards helping people secure their basic rights such as a decent home, appropriate social security benefits and challenging officialdom through judicial review, and towards assisting cases that raise issues of wider public interest. The present system does not allow the Government to do this. It allows no assessment of the importance of classes of cases or any way of targeting help towards priority needs. The government simply pays for the amount and type of legal services that lawyers wish to provide. The reduction of legal aid fund of removing all personal injury cases to CFA was significant. The third advantage of CFA is that weak cases will be weeded out. frivolous claim Because the solicitor is taking the risk of the charge, they will for sure assess the chance of success of each case before they accept it. This way, all weak cases will be weeded out. Also, under the CFA scheme, litigant are required to disclose to the other party. Disclosure of a CFA to the other party may encourage earlier settlement because the other partys cost exposure will increase in line with the level of the success fee. Although there are significant contribution, CFA also brings up lots of problems. . Traditionally, solicitors were restricted to change on a conditional or contingent basis. They have been restricted by case law, statutes and practice rules. The two main common law principles related to this are Maintenance and Champerty. Maintenance is where someone who is not a party to the action and has no interest in it, funds or otherwise supports one of the litigants. Such an agreement was generally held by the courts to be void for reasons of public policy and was also grounds for making an order for cost against a non-party funder. In entering CFA, lawyers may tend to put their duty to the court second to their desire to secure a win to guarantee fee, which may lead to suborning evidence, coaching witness, failing to give discovery of documents. This restricted the ability of solicitors to act either contingently and conditionally as they risked significant cost liability. A CFA gives the lawyer a financial interest in the litigation and he therefore takes control of the st rategy and resolution of the litigation. As Lord Denning once mentioned, in Re Trepca Mines Ltd. (No.2) 1963 CA, if legal advisors had a personal interest in the outcome of litigation they might be tempted to influence the damages, to suppress evidence or even to suborn witness Champerty is an aspect of maintenance where the third party not only supports a litigant but also takes a share of the damages awarded, e.g. contingent fee arrangement and success fee. Champerty has been held to be contrary to public policy and thus champerty agreement is void. Last but not least, Claimants may not be able to find a solicitor whos willing to take risk. Even if the case is strong, some solicitors may demand an unreasonably high chance of success to take the case. The decision in Calley v Gray and Halloran V Delaney have made solicitors less willing to take on the risk of CSA when success have been pegged at 20%. Further confusion has occurred after later decision of Sanwar V Alan and Designers Guild v Russell Williams, where the court allowed a claim of 100% success fee and justified it with the recognition that solicitor has taken a substantial risk in entering into CFA.