Ethical Decisions Essay

Irregardless or our differences, one thing that is general to all men is that we all have to make a decision at one point or the other. We are always faced with situations that call for us making a choice among alternative actions. Oftentimes, there are several alternatives before us and we have to make a choice. What do we do? At this stage, we are at a crossroad. Essentially, when man is at a crossroad, he should ask himself why he should do what he wants to do. We should appreciate the fact that the decision we are about to make determines a lot of things. For instance, the next decision we are about to make might make or mar us. We should also understand that since we do not live in an independent world, our actions have effects on the people around us. In view of this, we should not just make decisions but seek to make a good one. If we are to make a meaningful decision or choice, he should therefore evaluate the choices that lie before him. But the long asked question is; â€Å"How do we evaluate our actions? † Historically, many scholars and philosophers have made several attempts at answering the question. Many have come up with theories for the purpose of guiding man in his quest to make a credible decision. Interestingly, some of these theories are opposing to each other and so the struggle continues. We have to consider which of these theories gives the best answer to our question. On thing is sure, we have to make decisions. For better comprehension and clarity of this essay, I will attempt to make a briefly exposition on some of the ethical theories. I will also evaluate an experience I have had in the past in light of these ethical theories. Question that will be addressed in this essay includes; how can my decision be evaluated in light of the various ethical theories? Does these ethical theories approve of my action at this time? If it does, how does it? And if it does not why does it not? As an overview, in the course, we have learnt about utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, ethical egoism and various forms of relative theories, Aristotle’s virtue ethics and Aquinas natural law ethics. When I was in college, I was the course representative of my class. This position made me responsible for a number of duties, part of which is keeping the attendance details of students in the class. As part of the school’s rule, a student must attend at least 65% of all classes before he/she is allowed to sit for the final exam. As expected, some students did not comply with this rule and when we were busy having classes, they were no where to be found. The exam time came and I was told to submit the attendance register so that they can know who sits or misses the exam. When I went through the attendance, I discovered lots of people in my class fell into the category of those that will miss the exam and my friend was one of them. I asked myself, what would I do? After serious thinking, I decided to submit the register without altering it. Why? Because it is what is expected of me to do! Duty demands me to do so. Another reason why I made the decision was because my mind will not be at rest within me if I had altered the attendance register to please my friend. I also wanted them to learn their lessons and be better people. I believe that we should all have a sense of duty and that we should do be faithful people with what is place in our care. Evaluating my decision with Kantian ethics, I will hold that my decision was the right decision after all. In Kantian ethics, focus morality and rightness of action has its basis on duty, treating a man as an end, and universalism. Considering the issue of duty, it is my duty to properly keep the attendant sheet and not alter it. The attendance sheet was placed in my care and so my decision came out of a sense of duty. I did not also expect to be rewarded by my teacher nor do I seek for recognition from the principal. On this basis, Kant himself will approve of what I did. In addition to this, on the issue of treating a man as an end in himself and not a means to an end, I think my actions are also justifiable. For one, I did not submit the attendance sheet because I wanted the teacher to approve of my actions or to say â€Å"job well-done! † Although, I must admit that the teacher commended me and the principal later approve of my conduct, it was not the motivating factor for what I did. I did what I did because it was what I should do. It was the right thing to do. Also, on the issue of universalizability, will I wish that the same action be performed on me if I were the one in their shoes? My answer to this question is â€Å"Yes! † For one, I can not skip classes and even if I skipped classes and had to face the consequence of my action, I don’t think I will feel bad if someone who was merely doing his job did not help me. If I am guilty of an offence and I know the implication before I did it, then I should be made to suffer for it. Furthermore, when I look back and evaluate the decision I made at that time, I always come to a strong conclusion that that was the right thing to do. This is because I believe that no reason given can alter the consideration of duty. I had to ask myself why I was chosen to be the class representative. I was bound by some rules and some things are expected of me. I have to conduct myself in a manner where I will not go against the rules. I could have altered the sheet but that would have been against the purpose of my office. Apart from this, I will be encouraging laxity and indirectly be destroying their lives. They had to learn their lessons and it will not be to their good if they did not learn it. My friend, though furious with me for several years, is now grateful to me for doing what I did. From my own point of view, when we allow erring individuals to go scot-free, we are undermining the order in the society. Our society thrives because there is an order and so this order ought to and must be upheld. Our actions therefore should not be based on feelings or sentiments. We should all learn to do what we are meant to do. That is what is required of us. Reference: †¢ Popper, Karl. R.. â€Å"Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. †(1972) Oxford University Press.

Business Strategy and Innovation of Cisco Systems Inc

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of the report was to discuss the business strategy of Cisco Systems Inc (Cisco), a company widely considered innovative. The report was to discuss the justification of Cisco’s status of innovative, how the business environment impacted on Cisco and it’s opportunities for innovation, their sources of competitive advantage, strategic options available to Cisco, and evaluate the risks of implementing the strategic change to achieve this optionThis was done by evaluating Cisco’s current strategies, its business environment and markets, applying strategy frameworks in the context of its industry and innovation, and by analysing the risks that could be associated with implementing this change. Cisco innovate in three ways; they build innovation using research and development budgets; they buy innovation, by making strategic acquisitions; and they partner, developing strategic partnerships and ecosystems to aid innovation. Cisco’s ex ternal environment was assessed using PESTEL analysis and applying Porter’s Five Forces framework.It was established that the main key drivers for change were technological and worldwide competition laws. VRIN Frameworks were applied to assess Cisco’s sources of competitive advantage, as well as some of the threats they face in these areas. It would appear that the biggest threat to Cisco in this area is Non-substitutability; Cisco’s competitors are eroding their market share by offering similar products. Two strategic options were discussed; selling their enterprise products directly to the end users and entering the consumer market.It was decided that the more radical of the two was entering the consumer market; and the risks associated with implementing the change, along with advice on how Cisco could manage the strategic change, were discussed. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. 0 INTRODUCTION5 2. 0 IS CISCO INNOVATIVE? 6 3. 0 CISCO AND THEIR BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT8 3. 1 TH E MACRO ENVIRONMENT8 3. 2 KEY DRIVERS FOR CHANGE8 3. 3 APPLYING PORTER’S FIVE FORCES FRAMEWORK9 3. 3. 1 The Threat of Entry10 3. 3. 2 Threat of Substitutes11 3. 3. 3 Power of Buyers11 3. 3. 4 Power of Suppliers12 3. 3. 5 Competitive Rivals12 4. 0 COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE13 4. 1 Value14 4. 2 Rarity15 . 3 Inimitability15 4. 4 Non-Substitutability16 4. 5 Cisco’s Organisational Knowledge16 5. 0 STRATEGIC OPTIONS17 6. 0 IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIC CHANGE19 6. 1 Risk20 6. 2 Managing Strategic Change21 7. 0 CONCLUSION22 8. 0 REFERENCES24 9. 0 BIBLIOGRAPHY26 1. 0 INTRODUCTION Cisco Systems Inc (Cisco) was established in 1984 by a husband and wife team who wanted to solve the technical issue of emailing each other, but on different networks, and developed the first multi-protocol router, a device which allowed the different networks to ‘talk’ to each other by translating the different protocol languages (Cisco Systems Inc, 2012).This report will examine Cisco as an innovat ive company, the external factors affecting their ability to innovate, their sources of competitive advantage within the industry and consider some of Cisco’s strategic options, the risks associated with the changes in strategy and how this can be managed. The information has been compiled from information published by Cisco on their website, Exploring Strategy, Ninth Edition (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011), Academic Journals and published articles. 2. 0 IS CISCO INNOVATIVE?To establish if Cisco is innovative, first we have to define what innovation is. Innovation can be defined as, â€Å"†¦the conversion of a new knowledge into a new product, process or service and the putting of this new product, process or service into actual use. † (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011, pg 296). Therefore until the product, process or service is brought to the market; it cannot be considered an innovation. In regards to innovation, Cisco has an extensive innovation strategy. They do this using their â€Å"three pillars of innovation: build, buy and partner† (Cisco, 2012.Acquisitions, pg 1. ), The ‘Build’ aspect relates to internal innovation, whereby they develop products and services with Research and Development (R&D). They have 7 major laboratories in locations around the world, and employ around 20,000 engineers (Cisco, 2012). The diversity of basing these facilities all over the world will only help to aid innovation, as the people can use their own cultures and experiences to develop new product and services, thereby helping to develop worldwide solutions to global industry problems. Yearly Cisco invests over $5 Billion on R&D (Cisco, 2012).With regards to their ‘Buy’ aspect of their innovation strategy, Cisco is constantly looking to acquire technologies to improve their current product range. Cisco has acquired over 160 companies up to the end of 2012, and will continue to actively seek out acquisition opportunities to increase their product range (Cisco, 2012). It may be argued that innovation by acquisition is not innovation; however the innovation comes with the integration of these technologies into their existing product ranges and taking new products to market.Cisco also purchase technologies that have yet to be brought to the market, so are more inventions than innovations, and take calculated risks in doing so. Cisco’s approach to innovation is an open one, and they have many strategic partnerships. Cisco is aware that to maximise the potential of their products, they must rely on the products of other vendors. Cisco have created an Ecosystem, to help develop their Cisco Unified Computing System (UCS), a system that Cisco see as the future of the IT network; the collaboration of the network, all managed simultaneously on one platform (Cisco, 2012).By opening up their innovation to these ecosystem partners, it will engage the partners on a positive way and ensure tha t the partner’s complimentary products and services will be fully compatible with the UCS. The ecosystem approach will help speed up innovation, as more people working together to create innovative products or services are more likely to get superior products to market faster (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Cisco has, since inception, been a first-mover in its markets. Cisco’s vision, â€Å"Changing the way we work, live, play and learn† (Cisco, 2012.Corporate Overview Pg 11), shows that they want to lead the market in developing networking technologies. This gives them considerable advantages, allowing them to become market leaders in these areas, and charge a premium for these products. 3. 0 CISCO AND THEIR BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT When we discuss the business environment, we are in fact looking at the environment where the business operates. In this section the external environment will be analysed using PESTEL framework, focusing on some of the key dri vers for change, use Porters Five Forces to analyse the Industry and will look at the opportunities and threats Cisco face. 3. THE MACRO ENVIRONMENT The Macro Environment of a business is concerned with the external factors which affect almost all organisations (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Appendix A shows a PESTEL analysis for Cisco, outlining some of the issues which they face. For the purpose of the report, however, only the important key drivers for change will be discussed. 3. 2 KEY DRIVERS FOR CHANGE Looking at the PESTEL Analysis, there are some that are more relevant to the industry Cisco operate – Technological. Virtualisation technology became one of the most important key drivers for change in the IT industry of recent times.This meant companies like Cisco had to begin to develop systems that would take advantage of this. This has led to huge developments in ‘Cloud’ technologies, where the resources are provided, at a service fee, over the internet. They provide several variations of the ‘x-as-a-service’ model. This is beneficial to cash-conscious companies, who are looking to reduce the expensive CAPEX costs IT infrastructure incurs, passing this responsibility onto the service provider. The rate at which this technology has been released and adopted has fuelled Cisco’s innovation, as they have to innovate to continue to remain competitive.Another key driver for change is the Competition Laws Cisco are faced with, namely the US Antitrust policy, whereby all acquisitions have to be approved by the Department of Justice and the Federal Change Commission, who look at how acquisitions will affect the competition balance. They do not, however look at the innovative developments these acquisitions will create, nor if the benefit of such innovation outweighs the competition problems (Mandel and Carew, 2011). Appendix B shows some of the scenario outcomes of the effects of acquisition laws on the develop ment of technologies in the Cloud market.Scenario building can be useful, however you cannot have just one universal scenario for the company as a whole, there can be an endless chain of scenarios created for every situation that can be thought up. That is why, when looking at scenarios, it is important to identify the key drivers for change. 3. 3 APPLYING PORTER’S FIVE FORCES FRAMEWORK Porter’s Five Forces Framework can help Cisco establish if an industry is an attractive option, identifying five areas in competitive forces; the threat of entry, the threat of substitutes, the power of buyers, the power of suppliers and competitive rivalry (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).For the purpose of the report, we will focus this next section on Cisco’s Switching market. 3. 3. 1 The Threat of Entry Cisco must be aware of potential competitors into their markets, and creating sufficient barriers to entry can help. These barriers need to be overcome by new entrants to the market if they wish to compete (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Cisco, as first-movers, has created several barriers to entry; Cisco has greater experience over its rivals and uses its first-mover advantages to secure market share before anyone else tries to compete.Cisco do not manufacture the components of their products, they rely on over 600 companies for this (Cisco, 2012). They could try to secure exclusivity with these suppliers, thereby reducing the new entrant’s ability to buy the same components, making it harder for them to replicate Cisco’s products. In response to competition threats, Cisco could, in theory, enter into price wars with new entrants to the market, they could increase their marketing spend, and out-market the new entrants, as they have the financial means to do so.Overall, the threat of new entrants means Cisco have to remain innovative, to product new products, protected by patents, and creating new industry standards, to ma intain their share of the market. 3. 3. 2 Threat of Substitutes With the emergence of cloud technologies, Cisco was in danger of falling behind and their products substituted with Cloud technologies. However Cisco has developed products to compete in this area, for example their Switching-as-a-Service, giving their customers the option to have their network switching hosted in the cloud.To avoid being substituted, Cisco had to adapt to the emergence of Cloud technologies to remain relevant. Emerging technologies such as this ensure Cisco retains their innovative edge. 3. 3. 3 Power of Buyers Cisco only sells their enterprise products through a network of distributers. This increases the distributers buying power as Cisco are reliant on them. However due to the complexity of the products, there doesn’t appear to be a threat from the buyers in terms of competition, as they are unlikely to find backward vertical integration attractive.Cisco have to remain innovative to maintain the relationships with their buyers, if Cisco are seen to fall behind technology’s advance, then they will become obsolete to the buyers, and they will look to buy other products that are innovative. 3. 3. 4 Power of Suppliers As previously discussed, Cisco relies on over 600 suppliers to provide the components of their products. This gives the suppliers power, as delays in Cisco receiving their products will disrupt their supply chain. 3. 3. 5 Competitive Rivals In the switching market, Cisco currently hold around 69% of the market share Cisco, 2012), and while this is a comfortable position to be in, Cisco must not become complacent. HP is growing in market share year-on-year (Gabra, 2012), offering Cisco real competition in affordable managed switching products. HP also has a strong brand and a large presence in both the business and consumer markets. This makes HP an attractive alternative to the end user, which is a threat to Cisco’s core switching business. Cisco has to continue to develop their products, make them better than the rivals, to ensure they can maintain the market share.Customers need to see that they are getting value for money, so Cisco must do this with that in mind, they have to make the products affordable AND innovative. Cisco is strong in many areas discussed, they are innovative in nature, it is part of their history that they began and continue to innovate. As innovation is part of Cisco’s DNA, this is unlikely to change. They are developing some of the traditionally physical technologies (switching for example) for the cloud market, creating cloud platforms which they can still provide their core products from.Cisco has patent protection on their products, which puts them in a strong position to their competitors. To keep this patent protection relevant they need to continue to invent new designs to bring to market. They do have some weakness; the entry of HP to their core switching market is worth noting. Cisc o have still got a good market share, however HP are slowly eroding this, with gains in market share each year. Cisco will have to tackle this to ensure this erosion does not progress too far. To do this they must continue to produce superior products to HPs, and thereby drives their innovation. 4. COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE As previously discussed, Cisco currently have over 69% of the market share in their switching market. How does Cisco maintain their competitive advantage? The resource-based view is that, â€Å"†¦competitive advantage and superior performance of an organisation is explained by the distinctiveness of its capabilities. † (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 83) This is to say that it is the capabilities of the companies which give it the competitive advantage; the development of new innovative technologies alone will not give a company this competitive advantage (Eng & Luff 2011).Looking at some of Cisco’s resources and competences (Appendix C) we can see that these are wide-ranging, from the obvious of buildings, Computer Equipment and Employees, to the less obvious; strong balance sheet, worldwide R&D and Ecosystems. From here we can establish which of these are threshold resources and capabilities, those which are required to compete in a market (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) and the distinctive resources and capabilities, those required to give a company it’s competitive advantage (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).These have been illustrated in Appendix D. For the purpose of this report we will focus on the distinctive resources and capabilities, as those are the ones which will secure Cisco’s Competitive Advantage, and apply VRIN Framework to assess Cisco’s basis of these advantages; Value, Rarity, Inimitability and Non-substitutability. 4. 1 Value â€Å"Strategic capabilities are of value when they provide potential competitive advantage in a market at a cost that allows an org anisation to realise acceptable levels of return†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 90).Cisco does this by taking advantage of opportunities and limits the threats that they are presented with (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Acquisitions allow them to adopt new technology that their rivals cannot. If, for example, they were only to licence technology from these companies, their competitors could also. By buying these companies this allows them exclusive access to the technologies. Cisco’s R&D spending and the acquisition of technologies allow Cisco to produce products, which they protect with patents, that their competitors do not have, putting them ahead of the competition.Cisco spends billions of dollars each year on R&D, however still produce good profits which is acceptable to their shareholders. This shows that the shareholders understand that to achieve and maintain the market share, then spending on this level is acceptable. 4. 2 Rarity â€Å"Rare capabilities†¦are those possessed uniquely by one organisation or by a few others. † (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Cisco currently has over 8000 patents protecting their products, and files around 700 more per year.This gives them long lasting protection from competitors. Cisco employ over 20,000 engineers (Cisco, 2012) and the skills and knowledge of these people is a valuable commodity. Cisco must ensure they try to maintain a high level of staff retention to avoid engineers going to work for competitors. Cisco has a strong brand in the business market, with around 69% of the market share in the switching market alone (Cisco, 2012).Cisco have to ensure that they keep creating new rare capabilities to maintain this competitive advantage and adequately protecting innovations, for example, in the USA design patens last 14 years (United States Patent and Trademark Office, 2003) and 20 years in the UK (Intellectual Property Office, 2011). 4. 3 Inimita bility â€Å"Inimitable capabilities – those that competitors find difficult to imitate or obtain† (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 91). Cisco work with their customers to ensure that their needs are met, in turn this leads to co-specialisation (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).If Cisco is successful with this, then the customer is more likely to come back to them with future problems for Cisco to solve, and are unlikely to move to a competitor. Cisco’s innovative culture was imbedded into the company right from inception. Cisco has a competitive advantage here as innovation is something they just ‘do’ and have always done. Breeding this into an established company may prove difficult due to a lack of experience, resources and change resistance.Cisco also adapt well to changes in market conditions, and as technology moves forward, so do Cisco; by producing products and services to meet emerging technology. 4. 4 Non-Substitutability Cisco is at risk of substitution by competitors. Patent protection lessens the risk as by the time the patents expire; technology will have advanced so much that the patented technology is already old. This also does not stop companies from copying ideas; you only need to look at the press coverage of Smartphone producers taking each other to court, accusing the other of patent infringement.Cisco has to ensure that the products and services they offer remain ahead of the competition, to get a foothold on the market, to avoid substitution. 4. 5 Cisco’s Organisational Knowledge â€Å"Organisational knowledge is the collective intelligence, specific to an organisation, accumulated through both formal systems and the shared experience of people in that organisation. † (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 94) The items discussed in the VRIN framework above can be consolidated into the organisational knowledge of Cisco, and this too creates competitive advantage.The ex plicit knowledge gained by using codified information within the company’s structure and the tacit knowledge gained by experience and expertise combines is difficult to imitate, thereby creating a source of competitive advantage over rivals (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). 5. 0 STRATEGIC OPTIONS When assessing Cisco for potential strategic options, the following had to be considered; what markets do Cisco currently operate in, what products and services do they provide and is there any scope within the value chain for vertical integration?Two of the options which came to light were selling their enterprise products directly to the end user and entering the consumer market. Using the â€Å"Ansoff product/market growth matrix† (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 232) selling products to the end user would be market penetration, which would involve Cisco increasing their market share with their current product range through vertical integration of the Sale s and Marketing part of the value chain.The reasons behind Cisco taking this approach would be the potential of increased profit margins. By selling through distribution channels and partners, Cisco will come up against bias towards their competitors. As end users often rely on their IT reseller for advice on what they require, if the IT reseller has a preference for a competitor, then Cisco will lose the opportunity, regardless if their product is superior. They will increase their contact with their end users, and this will increase customer visibility and co-specialisation.Marketing direct to the end user will provide a greater visibility of the Cisco brand and could help build their brand awareness. This would also give them an advantage over competitors who do not sell online, and allow them more direct competition with those that do. They would still be able to work with their partners, as the partners would be the ones implementing the equipment, and will maintain their curre nt partner program revenue.There are a few issues that Cisco needs to be aware of if they implement this option; this will be costly. They will have to increase their sales and marketing presence, and they will also have to increase their distribution facilities, as well as create a direct sales channel, especially an online sales platform. They also run the risk of alienating their partners, as they will be in direct competition with them, which could result in partners looking to other options.This however could be combated by working with the partners, using partner deal registration procedures, to ensure that Cisco and their partners do not end up going after the same deals. They could also provide a referral system for new customers to the partners, if they buy direct from Cisco, then Cisco will refer them to a partner to handle the installation and management of the system. It may be that for this to work Cisco would have to withdraw their business from the distributers, essen tially cutting out some of the middle men.With regards to entering the consumer market, Cisco could go into the market selling new products and services (conglomerate diversification) however in this their current portfolio could be included, as they would be new products into the market (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). Consumers are looking for ways to combine their work and home technologies, making accessing all of the information they require easier. Therefore entering the consumer market with a mix of both current and new products may be prudent.This would allow them to build a market share on the products they know well. With new products, Cisco’s innovation policy of â€Å"Build, buy and partner† could apply here; they could build new products, for example set-top TV boxes and smart TVs which include their collaboration products (Cisco Jabber and TelePresence); buy innovation, for example if they were to buy a telecoms provider such as TalkTalk, they co uld introduce IP Telephony at home as a standard offering; or they could partner with the producers of these products to integrate Cisco technologies into these products.This would allow Cisco to generate Economies of Scope, as they would be able to use their existing resources in the new market. This may also produce a synergistic effect (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) as the increased brand awareness in the consumer market may bring more sales into the business market and vice-versa. 6. 0 IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIC CHANGE In the previous section two possible strategic options were considered; selling their enterprise products direct to the end user and entering the onsumer market. Here the focus will be on the more radical option of entering the consumer market and will look at the risks associated with implementing this change and how this change can be managed. When evaluating strategies, it is important to look at three key areas; Suitability, Acceptability and Feasibility , otherwise known as SAFe. For the purpose of the report we will focus on risk, a key point in assessing the Acceptability of the strategy (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). . 1 Risk â€Å"Risk concerns the extent to which the outcomes of a strategy can be predicted† (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011 pg 371). This can be assessed using different financial and statistical tools to establish the effects of the strategy on the Cisco’s risk level. Sensitivity testing can be used to challenge the different assumptions about a strategy and what the effects the ‘what if’ scenarios will produce (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).If Cisco enters the consumer market with assumptions of how much revenue this will generate, and there is an economic downturn, resulting in reduced revenue, what will the effects if this reduced revenue be? Financial Ratios would allow Cisco to look at the financial impact of the strategic option (Johnson, Whittington a nd Scholes, 2011). For example, entering into the consumer market would be of high financial risk due to sunk costs in setting up the new business stream and increased R&D costs, which would have a negative impact on the financial position of Cisco.Break even analysis is another financial tool that can be used to assess risk. This analysis shows the point where revenue will match fixed and variable costs, allowing Cisco to know the level of revenue required to break even (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) and assess if it is even viable. 6. 2 Managing Strategic Change Due to the rate that the technology markets change, Cisco should adopt a revolutionary change strategy (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) to ensure they take advantage of the opportunities available to them.They must ensure that there is a clear and concise strategic direction communicated throughout the company and to its stakeholders. To do this Cisco may be required to make changes to management, taking in new people to reinforce the changes (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011), preferably people with a proven track record in the consumer market. Management must also be ready to provide a business case for change (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) to outline why the proposed strategy is a good one, and may include some of the risk assessments mentioned above.Some of the decisions made to facilitate the change may seem extreme; changes in management, portfolio changes, increased focus on the consumer market and increased R&D spend, however these can be seen as both symbolic and rational levers for change (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). In managing resistance to change, Cisco should adopt a situational leadership style, where they can use different styles in change leadership to adapt to different situations (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).This will allow Cisco the flexibility to use different methods to increase stakeholder ‘buy-in’ to the s trategy. Some stakeholders may resist the changes as they may feel they are unnecessary or the timing is wrong, and it is essential that this is controlled to avoid stakeholders just ‘doing what they are told’. Compliance, as opposed to co-operation (or ‘buy-in’) can be detrimental to the success of the strategy, as underneath the surface nothing will have changed. Using this methods to achieve co-operation from stakeholders will keep the strategy focused (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011).However managers must also be sensitive to the strategy resistance, if there is a large amount of resistance they must assess to see if the resistance is warranted. Managers should be, wherever possible, honest in regards to the progress of the strategy (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011), from their business case for change, the progress of the change, through to the results achieved by the change. Failure to be honest in this will result in the stakeholders l osing faith in the strategy. 7. 0 CONCLUSIONCisco’s innovation is based around their ‘three pillars of innovation’; ‘Build’, where they spend around $5 Billion per year on R&D; ‘Buy’, they have acquired over 160 companies over the years and actively seek out new acquisition possibilities each year; and ‘Partner’, Cisco has developed strategic partnerships and ecosystems to aid innovation. The innovation culture has been part of Cisco’s strategy since the company was formed in 1984. The business environment Cisco operates in was discussed using PESTEL analysis and applying Porter’s Five Forces Framework.With the PESTEL analysis it was established that most of their Key Drivers for Change came from the Technological area of PESTEL. It was also decided that the legal aspects relating to competition law was also a Key Driver for Change, as it impacts their Acquisition policies. Scenario building was deemed importan t, however Cisco must be aware that not one scenario was sufficient, they must develop scenarios for all of their Key Drivers for Change. Porter’s Five Forces was discussed to show some of the factors which determine if the industry is attractive, and the threats Cisco face within the industry.It was determined that innovation alone does not bring competitive advantages. Cisco’s distinct resources and capabilities were assessed against the VRIN framework to identify the sources of their competitive advantage. The VRIN framework can also be consolidated to form Cisco’s organisational knowledge, which was also identified as another competitive advantage. Two strategic options for Cisco were discussed, selling of their enterprise products direct to the end user, and entering the consumer market. It was decided that the more radical of the two was the entry into the consumer market.The risks associated with implementing this strategy were discussed as was managing t he change. It was concluded that Cisco should adopt a revolutionary change strategy to facilitate the strategy implementation. 8. 0 REFERENCES CISCO SYSTEMS INC, (2012). 2012 Annual Report. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://www. cisco. com/assets/cdc_content_elements/docs/annualreports/ar2012. pdf [Accessed 19 November 2012] CISCO SYSTEMS INC, (2012). Corporate Overview. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://newsroom. cisco. om/documents/10157/0/Corporate+Overview+-+Q2FY12. pdf [Accessed 19 November 2012] CISCO SYSTEMS INC, (2012). Cisco Overview. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://newsroom. cisco. com/overview [Accessed 19 November 2012] CISCO SYSTEMS INC, (2012). Acquisitions. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://www. cisco. com/web/about/doing_business/corporate_development/acquisitions/about_cisco_acquisitions. html [Accessed 21 November 2012] CISCO SYSTEMS INC, (2012). Ecosys tem Partners. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc.Available from: http://www. cisco. com/web/strategy/energy/ecosystem_partners. html [Accessed 29 November 2012] ENG, T-Y. and LUFF, P. , (2011). Competing and developing competitive advantage in the digital world. [online]. London: Routledge. Available from: [Accessed 19 November 2012] GABRA, M. , (2012). Ethernet Switching Market Share: Did HP eat up that much share from Cisco? [online]. Palo Alto: Hewlett-Packard Company. Available from: http://h30507. www3. hp. com/t5/HP-Networking/Ethernet-Switching-Market-Share-Did-HP-eat-up-that-much-share/ba-p/120753 [Accessed 25 December 2012]IPO, (2011). Renewing your patent. [online]. Newport: Intellectual Property Office. Available from: http://www. ipo. gov. uk/types/patent/p-manage/p-renew. htm [Accessed 28 December 2012] JOHNSON, G. , WHITTINGTON, R. and SCHOLES, K. , (2011). Exploring Strategy, Ninth Edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. MANDEL, M. and CAREW, D. G. , 2011. Innov ation by Acquisition: New Dynamics of High-Tech Competition. [online]. Washington: Progressive Policy Institute. Available from: http://capitalis. com/admin/white_papers/file43. pdf [Accessed 3 December 2012] USPTO, 2003.How long does patent protection last? [online]. Alexandria: United States Patent and Trademark Office. Available from: http://www. uspto. gov/main/faq/p120013. htm [Accessed 28 December 2012] 9. 0 BIBLIOGRAPHY CISCO SYSTEMS INC, 2012. 2012 Corporate Social Responsibility Report. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://csr. cisco. com/cdnorigin/media/documents/CSR-Report-2012-Full-Report_129973894373990000. pdf [Accessed 19 November 2012] D’AVENI, R. , 2007. Mapping YOUR competitive position. [online]. Available from: [Accessed 5 November 2012] EVANS, D. , 2012.How the Internet of Everything Will Change the World†¦for the Better. [online]. San Jose: Cisco Systems Inc. Available from: http://blogs. cisco. com/news/how-the-internet-of- everything-will-change-the-worldfor-the-better-infographic/#more-90780 [Accessed 3 December 2012] HAMEL, G. and PRAHALAD, C. K. , 1989. Strategic Intent. [online]. HILL, T. and WESTBROOK, R. , 1997. SWOT Analysis: It’s Time for a Product Recall. [online]. PORTER, M. E. , 2001. From competitive advantage to corporate strategy. [online]. TEECE, D. J. , 2009. Business Models, Business Strategy and Innovation. [online].

Your role is to evaluate the significant progress and barriers to achieving one of these pillars. Based on iata’s four pillar strategy

Abstract The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has the difficult task of creating a sustainable and long term agenda that enables the aviation authority to develop a set or rules and regulations that not only supports the global aviation authority, but also deals with the growing concerns in relation to the environmental impact. As part of this, the governments of the United Nations came together to agree on the course of action as part of the 38th Assembly of the United Nations International Civil Aviation Organisation, where a cohesive agreement was put in place to tackle climate changes by the aviation industry. This commitment has had a dramatic impact on the airline industry and has targeted a variety of different aspects of the industry, in order to put in place targets and requirements to conform with and guidelines to assist in this process (International Civil Aviation Organisation, 2006). Pillars and Economic Measures Overview The IATA accounts for 240 member airlines and is therefore relatively widespread and can at least be seen as a means of creating a co-ordinated effort, without one country being at a disadvantage (. As part of this initiative, there were several widespread industry goals to achieve, in the medium to long term. One of these is to improve fuel efficiency by approximately 1.5%, every year up to 2020. Secondly, there was the aim o f capping CO2 emissions from 2020 and to cut the CO2 emissions in half by the year 2050 (International Climate Change Taskforce 2005). As background to the four pillars which make up the areas of proposed improvement is the recognition that air transport accounts for around 2% of the manmade emissions of CO2, across the globe; this therefore shows the importance of the aviation industry. Emissions in fact grew in 2012 by 1.4%, but this could be largely attributed to the 2.7% capacity increase, when combined with efficiency savings. The purpose of this paper is to look at the pillars very briefly, before focusing on one of these pillars and considering the impact that this has had on the aviation industry. Consideration will be given to the pillar under analysis and, through the use of a PESTLE analysis, the impact on the industry will then be looked at with a view to identifying how this can be improved for all parties, in the future. As part of the agenda for change, four pillars were identified that needed to be targeted in the long run. These were technology, operations, infrastructure and economic measures. For the purposes of the analysis here, the economic measures will be looked at in conjunction with understanding the challenges faced by the aviation industry, in order to meet with these economic measures, but also to retain a commercially viable offering, in keeping with the pressures on the economy, as a whole. The other measures such as infrastructure, technology and operations will all have a direct impact on the industry, for example, the governments are required to consider the better approach to structuring the aviation industry, so that it is easier to create efficiencies. This could include the relocation of airports, or the storage associated with commercial airlines, so as to reduce the amount of trade required to these sites. For some companies, this presents a real opportunity, as they are able to gain access to new routes and increased efficiencies, but for others, it may be a challenge when it comes to redirecting routes or being able to maintain its budget approach, by virtue of the airport routes (nternational Civil Aviation Organisation 2004). The issue here, however, is in relation to the economic measures and restrictions that are placed on the industry. This is recognised as being an approach that may be necessary as a result of a failure in one of the three other pillars. The economic measures are therefore seen as measures of last resort, where it is necessary for the industry to put in place restrictions that are operable across the entire industry and create a co-ordinated approach that is cost effective (Hartzell 2006). This would mean that airlines would only be accountable once, but would be required to comply with these central standards. PESTLE Analysis (Political Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal) In order to consider this pillar further, as well as the potential barriers to its implementation, a PESTLE analysis of the industry will be undertaken, with specific reference to the challenges now being presented as a result of the economic measures. This will offer a real understanding of the reasons why the measures might fail. This will ultimately then allow for possible solutions to be ascertained and put forward for the future.PoliticalThere is a great deal of political pressure on the aviation industry to conform (and be seen to conform) with these international requirements. Individual companies within the aviation industry are required to ensure that they keep records, make efforts to comply and are able to accurately state their position and plans to reduce their environmental impact (T&E/CAN-Europe 2006). Governments, as they have signed up to the agreement, are now also putting in place their own requirements for those within the aviation industry, such as the need to re port on CO2 emissions and their carbon footprints, as part of their annual report, again placing political pressures on the company itself. Furthermore, the political pressure on the government in question is reflected in the need for the overall structure to change. As part of this, however, there are incentives being offered including grants to purchase new more efficient aircrafts and the ability to gain rewards for those organisations that are particularly efficient environmentally. Despite this, there is no one overall coherent situation which presents a real challenge for the airline industry, in terms of planning for the future (Jowett,2005).EconomicThe airline industry is facing a substantial economic challenge, aside from that attached to the four pillars of climate change. With more families facing financial pressures, there is a likely reduction in the amount of travel for leisure purposes and an increasing desire for families to consider cheaper alternatives, or at least to look for cheaper options, such as budget airlines or less popular routes. Alongside this, there have been challenges to the bottom line, due to increasing fuel costs and the threat of fines from the Environment Agency, if they are unable to comply with carbon emission limits. Furthermore, other governmental requirements have been placed on the industry in relation to the need to have additional security and whilst this is not directly limited to the environmental measures, it is another indication of the way in which the government is impacting and restricting the economic freedom of the industry (The Observer 2005).SocialFamilies are becoming considerably more widespread, with regular foreign holidays becoming increasingly popular. This and an increasing global approach to the sale of goods and products also increase the demand for cost effective transport. This is potentially in direct conflict with the demands being placed on organisations to ensure that they comply with envi ronmental standards. On the whole, however, it is suggested that the public in general will support the agenda of increasing the interest in environmental impact, thus providing an opportunity for companies to use this as a selling point to the public, particularly if they exceed the standards being set (Lee 2004) .TechnologicalThis is a pillar in itself, showing a recognition that technology provides real opportunities within the airline industry, both to create overall efficiencies, but also to deal with the environmental concerns that arise currently. The technology force is seen to be two fold. Technology can be used to create efficiencies, for example, to plan routes and to determine the most appropriate way of providing the end service (The Guardian 2006). Automation and factors such as checking in passengers all offer efficiency saving options, but the main issue here is that technology allows for issues such as carbon emissions to be monitored more actively and this can then be used to manage the progress of a company and as a means of looking for improvements for the future (Graham 2000).EnvironmentalThe very essence of the issues being considered here is the increasing demands being placed on all industries to consider the environmental impact that they are having, both locally and globally. The airline industry is a particularly vast, due to the heavy environmental impact that it has, on a global level, and as such it is then necessary to comply with the standards agreed by the various different governments, during the recent IATA conference (Owen and Lee 2006). Having an enforced standard is therefore going to place a burden on the airline industries, although also potentially offers opportunities, as the governments look at ways of creating incentives to match the targets being placed on the industry to improve its position and also to use this as a means of gaining a good PR story and being seen to be environmentally conscious.LegalLegal requirements relating to environmental performance are becoming increasingly stringent, in the UK, with the government now looking to enforce certain behaviours on the industry. Other areas of legal scrutiny are also increasing the pressure on the industry; however, for the purposes of this analysis, it is noted that the main concern is the legal requirement on companies to report their status on their environmental capability and also to ensure that they remain aware of the future demands, so that investment can be made, as and when, rather than being a substantial financial burden, at a point in the fut ure (Green Skies Alliances 2006). Any failures in this area could result in costly and time consuming legal battles and may ultimately result in the fining of the company by agencies such as the Environment Agency. Barriers and Possible Solutions By looking at the issues above and the focus that is now being shown by the IATA on economic measures, as well as the impact that this is having on the airline industry, as a whole, there are some obvious barriers to these measures being successful. Firstly, there is the need to identify that, whilst there has been a co-operative approach to the climate change agenda, there is no one coherent system in place. This creates difficulties for both individual governments when it comes to creating a set of rules and regulations that are compliant with the overall standards, but are also relevant to the individual country. A potential solution to this barrier would be the need to offer greater flexibility to the individual jurisdictions to aim towards the overall goals, but without being too prescriptive in their approach (Trucost 2004). Secondly, a real barrier that is being faced is the fact that the airline industry is facing a variety of challenges, as it currently stands and therefore adding pressures to this is not going to work well with the industry, in terms of gaining acceptance. It is suggested, therefore, that although there need to be fines and restrictions put in place, a greater emphasis also needs to be put on the incentives and encouragement of the airline industry to behave in a certain way; for example, by allowing those companies which exceed their standards to gain a financial benefit, or by offering grants when the companies are considering making environmentally friendly improvements (Sewill 2003). Finally, it is suggested that one of the man barriers is that companies simply do not see a benefit being derived and therefore environmental restrictions are seen as being very negative to their current bottom line. A way of combating this would therefore be to assist companies in deriving a benefit from these restrictions; for example, by offering a grading that the company can then publicise and use as part of its marketing. The consumer public, as a whole, supports the idea of becoming more environmentally friendly and, as such, a method whereby the airline industry can gain a positive branding from complying with standards will be a way of offering an incentive and gaining more positive support, rather than being viewed as something that simply must be complied with. References Graham A (2000) Demand for leisure travel and limits to growth. Journal of Air Transport Management 6, pp109–118. Green Skies Alliance (10/7/06) Leaked Government report sets out alarming growth in air travel emissions. Pressrelease. Hartzell J (Aug 2006) Carbon offsets. Internal Paper, Ethical Property Company, Oxford. International Civil Aviation Organisation (Feb 2004) Operational opportunities to minimise fuel use and reduce emissions. ICAO Circular 303-AN/176. International Civil Aviation Organisation (Mar 2006) ATM-related environmental activities.Working paper ALLPIRG/5-WP/21. International Climate Change Taskforce (Jan 2005) Meeting the climate challenge: Recommendations of the International Climate Change Taskforce. IPPR, London. Jowett, K. (Nov 2005) Flights of fancy over aircraft pollution. Article in Transport Times. Lee D (2004) The science of aviation induced climate change. Proceedings of the UK Energy Research Centre, ‘Workable metrics for the EU emissions trading scheme’.Lee D (2006 Owen B and Lee D (Mar 2006) Allocation of international aviation emissions from scheduled air traffic – future cases, 2005–2050 (Report 3). Manchester Metropolitan University Centre for Air Transport and the Environment, Final report to DEFRA Global Atmosphere Division, Sewill B (Feb 2003) The Hidden Cost of Flying, Aviation Environment Federation, London. T&E/CAN-Europe (2006) Clearing the air: the myth and reality of aviation and climate change. T&E 06/2, Brussels. The Guardian (27/1/06) Passengers abandon northern flights for Virgin’s high-speed west coast tilting Pendolinos. The Guardian (22/2/06) Most Britons willing to pay green taxes to save the environment. Report based on a poll 17–19 Feb 2006. The Observer (26/6/05) Britain backs curb on cheap flights. Report based on a poll 10–12 June 2005. Trucost (Mar 2004) Emissions trading and European Aviation – the effects of incorporating aviation into the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, London

Influenza A virus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Influenza A virus - Essay Example The envelope has two surface glycoproteins called neuraminidase and hemagglutinin, the latter gets attached to the host cell prior to viral penetration. Often the HA protein undergoes several antigenic changes, such genomic alterations lead to phenotypic changes thus challenging the development of vaccines against influenza virus. [A. Maher and A virulent influenza A virus in humans is responsible for the infection of the respiratory tract leading to necrosis of the epithelial tissues. The infection then extends to the bronchioles and alveoli resulting in interstitial pneumonia. A susceptibility to bacterial super infection is not uncommon. The infection slowly affects extra respiratory tissues leading to myocarditis, myositis, parotitis, encephalopathy and Reye-Jhonson syndrome. [T. Kuiken, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, G. Van Amerongen and A. D. M. E. Osterhaus] For most experimental studies concerned with animal models, mouse is widely used .The low cost combined with its small size permits researchers to conduct large scale studies. Mouse is also considered suitable as a mammalian model for the studies concerning pathogenesis and immunity of human H5N1 influenza virus mainly due to the fact that this virus replicates very effectively and efficiently in the lungs of mouse without any adaptation.

Hierarchy of Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Hierarchy of Needs - Essay Example Why would parents want to send their children to school if they cannot even provide them the nourishment that will give them the energy to travel to school, study their lessons and do their homework? It would be impossible for a child to pay close attention to what the teacher is saying if he is hungry because he did not have anything to eat for breakfast. It would be unimaginable for a child to concentrate on his lessons if he lacks sleep because he slept on the streets the night before. A child must first have nourishing food, a comfortable home and the feeling of being safe before he can be ready to be educated at school (Minton, 2008). Otherwise, schools will just have to expect that either these students will voluntarily drop out from school or they will fail in their academic performance. Indeed, the physiological needs must be fulfilled first before the higher level needs of self-esteem and self-actualization can be realized. Schools which understand the imperative of taking care of the basic needs as step one of any school to parent outreach program implement free and reduced breakfast and lunch programs to help deprived students (Martin & Joomis, 2007). These schools provide guidance and counseling to the poor students to determine their needs and how they can be met. They make sure that these students are not discriminated upon and that they should feel a sense of belonging in the school. The teachers show sensitivity to these students behavior and try to help them develop positive feelings about themselves (Martin & Joomis, 2007). It is therefore important that to have an effective outreach program that aims to educate children of poor families, the low level needs of these individuals must first be addressed before they can be expected to be motivated to attend school. Minton, B. L. (2008, September 15). Maslows Hierarchy of Needs explains why some children fail . Retrieved May 28, 2012, from Natural News.com:

BS (Britsh standard) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

BS (Britsh standard) - Essay Example British Standard for the vocabulary of terms in design management system is being presented through BS 7000-10 so that there could be better understanding of terms used while managing design and coordinating the work of various professionals who forms the design development team. All the terms and related definitions that are basically the found in various other parts of the BS 7000 series have been collated into this BS 7000-10. Apart from these, this standard contains many other terminologies that have got a very common presence in design practice and management. The compilation has been the most useful as well as eloquent reference in all discussions in the domain of design. This BS 7000-10 defines vocabulary that has got its use in design and its management including those that are being used in different areas with particular meanings in industry as well as commerce. The scope of this BS 7000-10 has been quite wide and actually covers all terminologies that have some use in the design management irrespective of the sectors. It might be the government, industry, business & commerce, services providers and the public sector enterprises. It has equivocally been applicable to all range of areas that includes technical, services, software, production and design. The terminology related to Intellectual property Rights and other rights have also been given due space in the compilation. In short one can easily figure out that this BS 7000-10 is meant for an able assistance to those who have the responsibility or an interest in design and its management. But at the same time, it is also meant for assisting those who are basically meant for providing a helping hand to the main designers but have no familiarity with the terminologies that are often used by the designers. British Standard Series is a clear example of one understanding according to which one can

Internet is beneficial (argumentative) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Internet is beneficial (argumentative) - Essay Example Evidently, many people in the society have a measure of knowledge concerning the internet, especially concerning the potential to connect the globe irrespective of the distance. Moreover, different groups of people are familiar with other realms of possibilities brought about by the internet. For example, students recognize the provision of online schooling and jobs made possible by the internet. Without doubt, there are multiple controversies surrounding the positive and negative impacts of the internet in the society. In my research, I will seek to prove that the internet has served to transform the society positively through its numerous benefits. Readers will benefit from the research, as they will become familiar with the benefits of the internet despite the negative popularity associated with it. The media has been committed in developing different stories concerning the internet. Through the television, newspapers and online articles, I am bombarded with multiple articles discussing the potential impacts of the media, as well as other sources describing the origin of the internet and its effects in the recent past. One of the intriguing articles that I read touched on the development of the internet in the 1990s. The article revealed that the initial commercial browser that people relied on was the mosaic, and yahoo emerged a few years later. The 1990s saw an increasing popularity of the internet, with an increasing number of people owning computers, and seeking to have access to the internet. Reports reveal that 40 % of the American population owned computers by 1998, and 33 % of the computer owners accessed the internet. The increasing use of the internet sparked a debate concerning the nature of its influence. Notably, people ha realized that the internet was transforming societies, explaining why they sought to analyze the type of influence registered. The media have relied on the models of influence

Mandatory Soft Body Armor Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mandatory Soft Body Armor Safety - Essay Example Organizational theory gives a conceptual framework on how organizations should be structured and how people will be integrated into it for effective performance. The basic objective of a theory is to explain the nature of organization and help to predict how it would behave under various circumstances (Tosi p 6). OT analyzes the structure and process of the organization by describing the effects of different variables on the behavior of people of the organization. It therefore gives a theoretical basis for managers to be able to predict the behavior and therefore design the organization to influence their behavior to meet the goals of the organization. A highly centralized and formalized (mechanistic bureaucracies) type of organization would be best suitable when various tasks to be performed is well-understood, unchanging and how to best execute is clearly spelt out. On the other extreme there may be organizations which do a high level of non-routine tasks (research), where there is no well defined or right way of doing defined, but has to be done through innovation and intuition. These may require highly decentralized organizational struct ures with empowered teams with powers suitably delegated. Contingency theory gives insight to managers on design of organization when facing different situations. Management decision making at various levels be it corporate strategy level decision making (how to design organizational process), functional level such as marketing (how to align operations with its strategy), IT and communications (how to design information systems) and Human Resources (how to fix compensation structure, training) will all need a conceptual understanding of organizational theory. Decision making on organizational structure and design, be it for the entire organization or for specific functional areas, can be made better, if concept of organizational theory is well understood. Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior is concerned about the individual in the organization within the context of an organization. Human capital is an important resource in the organization and a manager has to get the best from it he needs to understand human behavior in organisations. Concepts of individual personality, traits, and abilities will help management in their decisions at the time of recruitment, promotion and making career development plans for its employees. It will help management decide on the best fit for various positions. Enlightened managers understand that an employee, very often, perceives management action affecting him as something quite different from what management intended it to be. An appreciation of one of the concepts of OB, perception, will help a manager to understand such situations better and come out with better decisions. Attitudes can significantly influence the behavior of person at work. Management is constantly worried about attitudes of its workers towards its policies and decision making on pay, compensation and rewards. Positive employee attitude is a

Trends in the Radio Industry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Trends in the Radio Industry - Research Paper Example Before the advent of Television and other electronic mediums, Radio for more than half a century was the most popular entertaining system available for people from all strata of the society, with maximum households all over the world enjoying the space occupied by radio. America was no exception to that trend with American radio industry was considered to be one of the thriving industries in mid 1900’s. This is the case even now with radio through various ‘avatars’ are still occupying the airwaves and thereby the mind waves of the people. â€Å"Radio reaches into every American home and place of business — a reach that exceeds that of any other medium. Given its role as a source of entertainment and news, the "ownership" of the airwaves is a significant issue† (Gongol 1). The technology of transmitting wireless messages or signals through the air over ground or water in the form of sound or magnetic waves became a near possibility, soon after the invention of telegraph and Morse code by Samuel Morse. Before that innovation, transmission of messages over long distances was impossible. This innovation and the discovery of electromagnetic waves by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in 1877 mainly led to the invention of radio and the resultant transmission of wireless messages. In 1894, using a different and much superior wireless telegraphy system, an Italian, Guglielmo Marconi, used discontinuous waves to send Morse code messages through the air for short distances over land. (Scott). Then, he sent the messages across the Atlantic Ocean. However, he could not commercially tap his invention in Europe because European governments had a kind of monopoly for message delivery through postal services, thereby allowing Marconi to develop wireless systems that can only tr ansmit messages over sea. However, even after the governments withdrew its restrictions and allowed using radio technology for commercial purposes, Marconi could not tap it fully because once the details of

A Man Made Marvel of the Twentieth Century Essay

A Man Made Marvel of the Twentieth Century - Essay Example Protocols most common in use are the internet protocol (IP) or the transmission control protocol(TCP).Modern day protocols can work in all wired and wireless networks. Earlier networking meant Ethernet cable connection using physical wires, which was seen everywhere in the school, offices and homes. However nowadays wireless technology has taken precedence and has become hugely popular. Wireless technologies operate by using infra red signals, or radio waves or microwaves for their transmission and connectivity. This is far more advantageous as it offers mobility without the cumbersome wires. Wireless LANS use spread spectrum and high frequency radio technology system for their wireless transmission within a limited area of use and this radio technology match up to the Wi-Fi standards of 802.11b. Another popular wireless network protocol is the ‘bluetooth’ used for data exchange within a distance of 100 metres. Other wireless web includes PDAs and cell phones that offer connection at all places and all times. In Terrestrial microwaves, another wireless network, transmission occurs through low gigahertz range and uses terrestrial or earth based devices for transmission and reception. Here antennas are required for network which are placed atop buildings and hills. Communicating satellites which are parked in space, transmit voice signals and other data by using microwave waves as these don’t get deviated by the earth’s atmospheric intervention. Wired technologies are varied and many are still in use and quite popular too.

Type a summary for each of the 4 readings that are assigned this wk Article

Type a summary for each of the 4 readings that are assigned this wk - Article Example Furthermore, Kelly (2008) noted the importance of epistemology and methodology in determining a Deaf standpoint. She stressed that Deaf Studies has to answer questions regarding epistemology and methodology before proceeding to determining a Deaf standpoint. Moreover, Kelly (2008) argued that Deaf women are marginalized because they are rarely found in history books, an absence that disables them from learning more about their gender and Deaf identities. As a teacher of Deaf Women’s Studies, she noticed the glaring absence of books on and by Deaf women. She stressed that few books are by, for, and done with Deaf women. Kelly (2008) concluded that Deaf women scholars should encourage Deaf women to share their writings and other works with them and the public in order to encourage interest in and research on Deaf women. Holcomb (2013) explored how the Deaf community embraces diversity using two perspectives in â€Å"Chapter 13: Diversity in the Deaf Community.† One perspective asserts that the Deaf community embraces differences, while the second believes that due to limited access to multicultural resources, the Deaf community is as conservative as mainstream non-Deaf society and that Deaf people also show discrimination against minority groups within it. He stressed that the Deaf community exhibits both these types of communities. In addition, Holcomb (2013) described that the Deaf community is actually composed of Deaf communities because it represents diverse Deaf groups, such as the hard-of-hearing Deaf, Deaf people from the mainstream, the elite Deaf, the grassroots Deaf, and the regional Deaf. He further explored how diversity in the Deaf community results to division within it. Furthermore, Holcomb (2013) identified Deaf individuals of color with notable accomplishments in different fields. He also stressed the challenges of Deaf people in accessing programs that have holistic components to development and the issues involved in dealing

Glory Movie Essay Example for Free

Glory Movie Essay Glory is both an awe inspiring and heart wrenching movie about the first all black volunteer company to fight in the civil war. The movie starts off with Col. Robert Gould Shaw leading a company of soldiers in Antietam which suffers heavy losses. Soon he is promoted to Colonel and given command to the 54th Massachusetts volunteer infantry; the first all black regiment. The first volunteer to sign up is an educated black man named Thomas Searles who is also Shaws friend. Many more men join the regiment including an escaped slave named Trip, a free black man named Jupiter Sharts, as well as the gravedigger Rawlins. After realizing the regiment in never going to be more than anything but manual labor, Colonel Shaw confronts his superiors and demands to be transferred to somewhere where they will see some fighting or else he will report him to the War Department for suspicious business. Shaws request is granted and is transferred to South Carolina where they successfully fight off a group of confederates. This movie was a huge hit. Released in 1989, it won a total of 16 awards including 3 Oscars and god nominated for 12 more awards. The Director Edward is well-known for his heroic movies that include Glory (1989), and the breathtaking works of art that include Legends of the Fall (1994) as well as modern hits such as Love and other Drugs (2010) and Defiance (20080. Zwick has also been known for his thoughtfulness as a director, and for his record of working with television series and other films as a producer. The movie itself was destined for greatness with huge Hollywood names such as Denzel Washington who played Trip and Morgan Freeman who played John Rawlins also great supporting actors like Matthew Broderick who played Colonel Shaw and Andre Braugher to play Thomas Searles. The movie budget was 18,000,000 and grossed a total of 26,830,000. In my own rating system 5 being the best and 1 being the lowest the movie got a 4. The movie deserved every award it got. There were amazing battle scenes as well as some very emotional scenes as well. Denzel Washington was an amazing actor, the scene where he was getting whipped for deserting (which we later find out was to find shoes) while the colonel was watching was one of the most heart wrenching scenes in the movie. As well as great acting the story never skips a beat. There’s never a dull moment. The movie had a clear plot and you could easily understand why something was happening. The movie gave a realistic view of how hard things were for African Americans were and their hunger to fight for what they believe is right. The historical accuracy of Glory is pretty questionable. It does a good job addressing the hardships and discrimination the 54th did go through. However like all Hollywood history movies it does have its rights and wrongs. Most of the volunteers in the movie were depicted as fugitive slaves when in reality they were free men in Massachusetts. Of the major characters in the movies version of the regiment, only Robert Gould Shaw was a real person. The rest are made up characters. The name of Shaws executive officer (Cabot Forbes) is a combination of the first name from one of the real Shaws friends and the last name of another. Colonel Shaw was a married man yet in the movie it wasn’t shown. Though it may not have been a big point in history it was a big part of Colonel Shaw’s personal life. At the end of the movie it states that over half of the regiment was lost during the assault on Fort Wagner. However, official records state that the 54th sustained 272 casualties, which is closer to 40%. Of these casualties, only 116 were fatalities, just under one fifth of the men to storm the fort, however if you include the 156 that were captured it would bring your total to over half. Most aspects of the movie however are true. When the black soldiers refused pay due to discrimination Colonel Shaw did refuse his pay as well. Against all expectations the 54th rose above that and proved them wrong. They proved their valor and honor throughout several battles during the war. There was a memorial made to Colonel Shaw and his 54th and thus solidifying their regiment as one of the most influential and memorable of all time. Bibliography * Glory. Dir. Edward Zwick. Perf. Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, Morgan Freeman. TriStar Pictures, 1989. * Glory. IMDb. IMDb.com. Web. 8 Jan. 2013. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097441/. * The 54th Massachusetts Regiment in Myth, Memory, and History. Civil War Memory RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2013 * Museum of African American History, Boston Black Heritage Trail Site 1. Museum of African American History, Boston Black Heritage Trail Site 1. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2013.

What drove H&M to expand to China

What drove H&M to expand to China From 1964, HM started its first expansion of the Europe in Norway, and then continued developing the European market in the following 30 year, such as UK, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany and France. In recent years, HM was not content to stay in the European market, it entered US market in 2000, and Canadian market in 2004. Comparing with the period which it expanded European market, HM has improved its speed of expansion faster and more effective in Asia market. It opened the first East Asian store in Hong Kong in 2007 and then it landed other Asian countries quickly and successfully.According to Rolf Eriksen who is the CEO of HM, We are very proud to open our first store in East Asia, in Hong Kong. China is a strategic and exciting market with great fashion awareness and spending power. We therefore see a vast potential for expansion. We are convinced that we can offer our Hong Kong customers added value through fashion and quality at the best price. (HM, 2007a). Fashion has become essential elements in peoples daily lives. HM is the top leader in the Fashion area. This paper evaluates what drive HM to expand to China since 2007 and how the expansion leads HM to change their strategy using PESTEL analysis and SWOT analysis.   HM is a new member to the Chinese Market; this paper will evaluate whether HM enter Chinese market is a good choice and whether they have good strategy to deal with the new market. The first part is background and outline; second part is PESTEL analysis; third part is S.W.O.T analysis; then is the recommendations; final part is conclusion. Pestel Analysis Political China has gone through many chances on the central marketing philosophy, Chinese government has changed many policies to attract foreign investment. In the past, FTC (Foreign Trade Corporation), which is a government organization for the particular goods to be exported, is the only way to export commodities to China in the directly method. After Chinese government canceled the closed distribution system and joined to WTO in 2001, many commodities could be exported to the Chinese market. That is a real free market to reflect what are the real market needs rather than the government control and provide goods which they decided for people. This movement made the living standards of most population in China has a great improved and people have more freedom of choice. Today, China stays at a stable political situation. Chinese Government always attach importance of foreign investment and welcomes foreign investment in China, it also has made unremitting efforts to improve the investment e nvironment, protect the legitimate rights and interests of foreign investors. (China.com, 2004). It is the good chance to enter the Chinese market, because HM can use the preferential policies which given by Chinese government to make their profit maximization in China. Chinese government collects low tax on foreign enterprises and offer many preferential tax policies to encourage the investment by foreign enterprises. For example: The income tax on foreign enterprises is collected at the rate of 33 percent. If the foreign enterprises located in a special economic zone, it will be collected at the rate of 15 percent (China.com, 2004). Economic China has become one of the fastest-growing economies in the world since the Chinese economic reforms in 1979. From 1979 to 2007, the GDP of China keeps a stable increase at an average annual rate of 9%. Many economists predicted that if Chinese government continue and deepen the reforms of economic, especially on SOEs (state-owned enterprises) and state banking system which are poor efficiency, China will become the largest economic country in the world in the years to come (Wayne, 2007). Commerce still plays an important role in the Chinese economy. The total value of import and export has increased rapidly from $20.4 billion in 1978 to $2.173 trillion in 2007. Thereinto, exports grew to $1.217 trillion and imports rose to $0.956 trillion, engendering a $261 billion trade surplus. From 1979 to 2007 the average annual growth of export is 18.1%, while the average annual growth of export is 16.7% (Wayne, 2007). Nowadays, China has become the fourth-largest trading economy after the Un ited States, Japan and Germany. Chinas trade boom is largely as a result of large inflows of foreign investment which is accounted for over half of Chinas trade. The financial crisis which started at spring of 2007 is the biggest problem that HM was facing. If HM want to pass the financial crisis, enter the Chinese market is the best way because with continuing fast increase on Chinese economy, the potential of Chinese market is enormous. When the global economy grows slowly, particularly, some developed countries are still in a sluggish status such as the United States and Japan, in these market HM have to use promotions and discounts to attract customers. While, Chinese government keep a strong rising momentum by the further opening up which creates a steady economic environment for foreign investment, HM took this occasion into the Chinese market and changed their strategy. Through their marketing strategy still is offer fashion and quality at the best price, however, the best price has the different meaning in Chinese market and other markets. In other countries, the most of target consumers in HM is lower class and middle lower class. Be fore the first HMs store open in Shanghai, there was a queue more than 500 people and most of them are office workers which belong to middle upper class in China. In addition, HM has got a highest sales volume about $7000,000 a day in China during the financial crisis (Businessweek. 2007). Social China, which is the fourth largest country, has a large population of 1.4 billion people and will be the largest economy of the world in the future. If you stand in some metropolis such as Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong, you will find that it has not any difference from the city in the developed country. A large number of cars run on the road, people wearing Adidas shoes and Calvin Klein t-shirt are busy in the streets, eating KFC and drinking Coca Cola as a lunch. In the evening, people go to the bars where play the American music and serve German beer. These facts often made the foreign think that the foreign products and its influence will be easy to accept by Chinese. Actually, most of Chinese still keep their traditional customs and thinking methods. If the foreign enterprise wants to be accepted by Chinese market they should think twice and research the local culture. Whether the companys culture will be able to accept in the new environment which is not a biggest problem only for HM, but also for many business. For this part, HM should consider many problems, this is determining by the flexibility and the philosophy of the company. HM should consider whether the culture of this new environment can accept its new culture. And it should consider different religions and different trendy, whether the product will attract customers. If HM is not acceptable, they should change their strategy to enter Chinese market. However, Chinese market accepted HM because Chinese are globalization and western day by day. The most important fact is HM culture is consistent with Chinese consumer psychology. That is Offer quality and fashion at the best price! (Lisa, 2008). Technology Telecommunication has advanced since 1990. Today, China has a high subscriber rate of the media, such as TV and internet has been popular in every family. Environmental Environment is a main issue in China. Green trade barrier appear in China in the end of twentieth century. It causes terrible effects on the trade of import and export in China. However, Chinese government has begun to manage the environment pollution. When they learn advanced technology of Europe, the United States and other developed countries, they learn the development policy and environmental standards of foreign environmental industry, and they also learn advanced management methods and policies of foreign enterprises. On the environmental issues, Chinese government combined prevention with control, made strict environmental, increased investment of environmental technology and promoted the development of environmental technology and industry. By the end of 2005, the quality of environment has improved and total emissions of major pollutants have reduced 10% comparing with 2000. In this aspect, HM set an example for many Chinese enterprises. HM promotes environmental awareness between their suppliers and employees. They adopted new technologies to use the resources as efficient as possible that could minimize waste. HM respect the decisions which be made by nature. HM adhere to use organic cotton which grow in the traditional environment without any chemical (HM, 2007b). Legal HM is a Swedish clothing company, which is familiar with Swedish laws and Europe Lows which have many differences with Chinese laws. After HM entering Chinese market, they had to adapt to Chinese laws in order to get their license, then they sell in Chinese market. Chinese government will continue to confirm that whether HM follows the Chinese laws. If they do not follow the Chinese laws their licenses will be taken away. That means HM has to change a few differences from other country on their strategy and operation methods in China. S.W.O.T Analysis Strengths: Offer fashion and quality at the best price is the main reason why HM is so popular. It sells quality clothing with a low price. Through the prices of its items in Chinese market is not quite low for Chinese. However, it proves they still have space to lower their price to attract Chinese people. Products production cycle. HM can only take 12 weeks to obtain the items from the design state to the sell state. The average time for other retailers is about 6 months which is 2 times time of HM. (Bruno,2007) They ask many guest designers to design for their product to keep their brands fresh and enhance their brand image. Most of guest designer are famous designer, the rest are famous stars, such as Madonna, who designed a limited edition called M by Madonna. This limited series made the HM sales increased 17% in March, 2007. HM has many successful experiences of overseas expansion. They expanded the Unite State, Canada and many other Europe countries. Through China is their first step into East Asia, there may be many different culture value, they still can learn from the successful experience. Before HM went into the Chinese market, they had the production base in the Shanghai and Hong Kong and they has had many year experience of cooperation with these supplies. Weaknesses: Overstocking of goods is troublesome problem for all retailers. They has sell their products in a low price, if they could not sell their products as quickly as they can ¼Ã…’that means there is not room for the new collection (EMCC, 2004). They will foucs maybe too narrow. Chinese culture could not accept western culture on some parts. Opportunities: Chinese Market Entry could diversify potential into relevant market segment. Chinese Market could be a distribution channel for seeking new products. HM can promote brand level via entering Chinese market because their products are sold to middle upper class in China, they has increased their brand level in China; Then they can increase their brand level gradually around the world; Finally, their value that Offer fashion and quality at the best price will be achieved. Threats: From HMs old competitor such as ZARA and GAP. ZARA entered the Chinese market earlier than HM. Zara is famous with its quick production cycles. It can only take 2 weeks for the design to a sell state. Even if HM reduce 50% production time, they still cannot compete with ZARA. Since H M has entered the Chinese Market, many of its old competitors all entered Chinese Market after HM. From the local brand. If we say HM to some extent copied the top brand in the world, after it entered the Chinese Market, it will become the copied object. Recommendation HM should continue innovating in making clothing which can make them be well known around the world. HM should improve their brand level. In some extent, best price always be seem low price. They should change their brand image in peoples mind to obtain the real best price. Because China has get a high subscribers rate of internet, HM should open the online shop in China. Now, HM has opened 33 shops in China, most of these stores open in the core city of China, there are many people they have ability to consume HM but they could not buy it because they live in different city, they need to ask friend or pay money to someone who live in the core city to buy the products. Why does HM not set up their own online shop which is easy for all people to consume in HM in China. Conclusion Through above discussion, we can see from PESTEL analysis the extend factors has attraction to HM to enter Chinese market and change their strategies in some extent. We get the result from S.W.O.T analysis, the strengthes of HM enter Chinese market are over the weakness. HM have chance to enhance their brand level in Chinese market, however, there are many threats or competitors HM should be care. Overall, Chinese market entry is a good chance for HM. Reference Bruno,Z. (2007). Critical Success Factors for International Fashion Retailers Entering Foreign Markets. FIBRESTEXTILES in Eastern Europe October/December 2007, Vol.15. Businessweek. (2007). Swedens HM Lands in China. [online]. Available at: http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2007/gb20070508_735792.htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index_global+business. China.com.(2004).What are the preferential policies offered to enterprises with foreign investment? [online]. Available at: http://english.china.com/zh_cn/business/faq/11024764/20041015/11917364.html EMCC. (2004) Industrial change in the textiles and leather sector: Hennes Mauritz. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions 2004. HM. (2007a). HM OPENS FIRST STORE IN EAST ASIA. [online]. Available at: http://www.hm.com/us/press/pressreleases/__prfinance.nhtml?pressreleaseid=263905 HM. (2007b). HMs environmental objectives and sustainability policy. [online]. Available at: http://www.hm.com/us/corporateresponsibility/environment__environment.nhtml Lisa,B (2008) HMs Magnus Olsson: Swede success. [online]. Available at: http://www.retail-week.com/hms-magnus-olsson-swede-success/1911483.article Raphael,M. (2008) HM and INDITEXS global expansion strategy. THE RETAIL DIGEST. Rupert, W.(2010) New Look aims to replicate HM success abroad . [online]. Available at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE6142TX20100205 Wayne M .(2007).Chinas Economic Conditions.

Assessing The Conflict And Consensus Approaches

Assessing The Conflict And Consensus Approaches Consensus is a concept of society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular society. The consensus ideology proposes that society consists of social institutions which are all dependent of each other and are vital for maintaining social order. The consensus theory highlights harmony, integration and stability. Functionalists argue that the main institutional groupings play a tremendous role in determining the culture of society. These, as example include economic, politics, family and kinship, as well as media. Economic growth plays a role as well because it affects the way certain societies think and how they run their everyday lives. The functionalist perspective is rooted in the work of Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and gives the view of society as an organism in which each part functions in a certain way to ensure the stability of the whole. Though society is something which exists on its own it has a structure of parts that maintains it. The parts are institutions like the family or the church, which are useful or functional in some way, but if the institution was no longer functional it would disappear and be replaced like a passing fashion. People involved in these institutions may not be aware of their function, but because the institution exists certain effects follow. Institutions are long lasting so therefore functional. The foundations of functionalism explain how social inequality is necessary to motivate the more talented members of society to train to fulfil the demands of social positions which are functionally more important than others. They list the rank order of positions as religion, government, wealth and technical knowledge and point out that only a limited number of people have the talents which can be turned into the skills needed for these positions. This takes training which means social and financial sacrifices are made, so in order to encourage people to undergo this training, and to endure the demands of the future position itself, they are given certain privileges. This may include access to scarce resources such as property, power and prestige. This access to scarce resources produces stratification but also inequality in the amount of resources allocated to different people. This inequality is both functional and inevitable. Functionalist theories state that education meets the needs of the industrial society as well as the cultural society and has the important role of socialising the individual to fit into, and continue, the social system. Individuals are born into a society that already has an identity of its own and education has the function of passing on shared values and skills. Where functionalism uses consensus, shared norms and values and concepts such as order, harmony, cohesion and integration, Marxism takes a different view. Marx argues that that economic inequality is at the heart of all societies. Conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people-this can be a covert or overt conflict. The conflict perspective is based on many conflict approaches. In spite of their inconsequential differences, they all have a model of society as a whole and they collectively share the view of the structural approach. Additionally, all perspectives, in some form or another, share the notion that sociological groups have different interests. As a result, they propose that conflicts are always probable since that when different groups advocate their own individual interests, it tends to cause disagreement and in certain situations, resentment. Arguably, the two most prestigious standpoints within the approach are the Marxist and feminist conflict theories. A major difference between functionalism and the conflict perspective is that the conflict approach accentuates the existence of competi ng groups whilst functionalism views groups as being fully cooperative. Conflict theorists emphasise conflict and contradiction whereas consensus theorists maintain that societys institutions work within functional unity. The conflict paradigm (particular Marxists), conversely, holds that society has an infrastructure and a superstructure that work independently. The ideology considers value as being the mechanisms for keeping society together. Conflict theorists reject the assertion and claim that values are imposed by the powerful groups in society. Conflict theory, proposes that conflict, struggle and change are more prevailing within society. Marxism sees human history as a class struggle, with oppressor and oppressed wrestling for control. The dominant class controls and owns the means of production or wealth generation, and the working class in therefore controlled by them. Welfare is a result of the strength of working-class resistance to exploitation, a concession the dominant class must make to maintain social order. Programmes such as welfare and pensions help to legitimise the capitalist system with the working class. Welfare then becomes another vehicle for power and control by the dominant class. Its purpose is to placate rather than empower the poor, and seeks to reduce the individual to a state of dependency on those in power. According to Marxist theory, society has unfolded in a series of ever-progressing and better structures, as defined by their economic development and modes of production, from the primitive communal to slave-based to feudal to capitalist. The final stage was communism. This was predicted to be the best possible means of governance and structure of society, one that would erase inequalities and allow individuals to achieve their full potential and value within their community. Marxism viewed the individual as part of a collective organism, society. Inequalities in society resulted from distinction in classes, not particular individual decisions or behaviours. Conflict was between these classes, and rooted in struggle for power. Marxism assumes the individual can and will contribute to the greater community as much as they are able, and will be motivated by the common good. When society has evolved or elevated itself to this place, inequalities will be dealt with appropriately The problem with broad application of Marxist theory is that individuals do take advantage. As Wes Sharrock 1977 puts it: The conflict view is founded upon the assumption that society may provide extraordinarily good lives for some usually only possible because the great majority are oppressed and degraded. Difference of interest are therefore as important to society as agreements upon riles and values, and most societies are so organised that they not only provide greater benefits for some than for others Social conflict differs from consensus because it is interested in the way unenequal distribution of advantage in a society structures behaviour and is interested in the conflict inherent in such a society. The Marxist perspective concentrates on the differences between groups and concepts such as control, conflict, power, domination and exploitation. This is the theory based on the work of Karl Marx (1818-1833) Marx felt that social class was the main form of inequality and saw only two significant social classes. He maintained that it was capitalist industrialisation that led to this two class society, the bourgeoisie who owned the means of production (e.g. factories) and the proletariat who became the wage labourers (working in the factories). What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, is its own grave diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable. (Marx and Engels. 1848) Is social stratification socially constructed. Throughout the ages there has always been evidence in stratification and how it is socially moulded into almost everything. It can be seen In families, the workforce, in politics and international from one country to another, male against female, ages from young to the old and from the rich to the poor. It is even seen in the animal kingdom and it appears to be a natural instinctive survival mechanism but one that is unfair. It seems to happen when one or more people having a belief in something which in turn over powers the next therefore creating a layer with a low medium and high for example the class system of the poor and the bourgeoisie It depends on the individuals definition of social stratification however one may understand it as a form of hierarchy which is displayed almost in everything and everywhere we are only free when we are first born from then on in we belong to a class starting within the family union through to a much bigger ranking within local to international society. FOUR SECTIONS : RACE GENDER SEX AND AGE There are two reports which have been commissioned by the government to try and find some evidence of variations in health and illness. These are The Black Report (1980) chaired by Sir Douglas Black and The Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health by Sir Donald Acheson (1998). Firstly, in The Black Report inequalities in human health take a number of distinctive forms. Most attention is given to differences in health as measured over the years between the social (or more strictly occupational) classes. When comparing rates of mortality among men and women in each of the 5 classes. Taking the 2 extremes as a point of comparison it can be seen that for both men and women the risk of death before retirement is two-and-a-half times as great in class 5 (unskilled manua1 workers and their wives), as it is in class 1 (professional men and their wives). One of the most distinctive features of human health in the advanced societies is the gap in life expectancy between men and women. This phenomenon carries important implications for all spheres of social policy but especially health, since old age is a time when demand for health care is at its greatest and the dominant pattern of premature male mortality has added the exacerbating problem of isolation to the situation of elderly women who frequently survive their partners by many years. The imbalance in the ratio of males to females in old age is the cumulative product of health inequalities between the sexes during the whole lifetime. These inequalities are found in every occupational class demonstrating that gender and class exert highly significant and different influences on the quality and duration of life in modern society. Rates of age-specific mortality vary considerably between the regions which make up the United Kingdom. Using mortality as an indicator of health the healthiest part of Britain appears to be the southern belt (below a line drawn across the country from the Wash to the Bristol Channel). This part of the country has not always exhibited the low rates of mortality that are found there today. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the South East of England recorded comparatively high rates of death, while other regions like Wales and the far North had a rather healthier profile. The fluctuation in the distribution of mortality over the years suggests that social (including industrial and occupational) as much as natural factors must be at work in creating the pattern of regional health inequalities. One of the most important dimensions of inequality in contemporary Britain is race. Immigrants to this country from the so-called new Commonwealth, whose ethnic identity is clearly visible in the colour of their skin, are known to experience greater difficulty in finding work and adequate housing (Smith, 1976). Given, for example, these social and economic disabilities it is to be expected that they might also record rather high than average rates of mortality and morbidity. Class differences in mortality are a constant feature of the entire human lifetime. They are found at birth, during the first year of life, in childhood, adolescence and in adult life. In general they are more marked the start of life and in early adulthood. Average life expectancy provides a useful summary of the cumulative impact of these advantages and disadvantages throughout life. A child born to professional parents, if he or she is not socially mobile, can expect to spend over 5 years more as a living person than a child born to an unskilled manual household. At birth and during the first month of life the risk of death in class 5 is double the risk in class 1. When the fortunes of babies born to skilled manual fathers are compared with those who enter the world as the offspring of professional workers the risk of mortality is one and half times as great. From the end of the first month to the end of the first year, class differentials in infant mortality reach a peak of disadvantage. For the death of every one male infant in class 1, we can expect almost 4 deaths in class 5. In adult life, class differences in mortality are found for many different causes. As in childhood the rate of accidental death and infectious disease forms a steep gradient especially among men; moreover an extraordinary variety of causes of deaths such as cancer, heart and respiratory disease also differentiate between the classes. The duration of the human lifetime is one of the best means of approximating the lifelong pattern of health of individuals and whole populations. As we have seen, the risk of premature death in Britain today is systematically related to socioeconomic variables. This association is not new or unusual. Death rates have always been relatively high among the underprivileged and materially deprived sections of communities. Why this should continue to be so in an era characterised by new patterns of disease, increased purchasing power, and state provision of free medical care is more perplexing. In infancy and childhood where the class gradients are steep, the major causes of death are in many ways directly linked to poverty and to environmental risk. In adulthood the relationship between health and class becomes more complex and in old age social and economic deprivation becomes a common experience. Both Cartwright and OBrien (1976) and Buchan and Richardson (1973) have studied GP consultations in depth. Both investigations showed that middle class patients tended to have longer consultations than did working class ones. More problems were discussed at consultations with middle class patients than with working class ones. Cartwright and OBrien also found that middle class patients were, in a sense, able to make better use of the consultation time, as measured by the number of items of information communicated and the number of questions asked. Moreover even though working class patients tended to have been with the same practice for longer, the doctors seemed to have more knowledge of the personal and domestic circumstances of their middle class patients. In an earlier study Cartwright had found that middle class patients were more likely to be visited by their GP when in hospital than were working class patients (Cartwright, 1964). For cultural reasons then, and also because th ere is a tendency for the better doctors to work in middle class areas, the suggestion is that middle class patients receive a better service when they do present themselves than do working class patients. In the case of family planning and maternity services substantial evidence shows that those social groups in greatest need make least use of services and (in the case of antenatal care) are least likely to come early to the notice of the service. Cartwright (1970) found clear class gradients in the proportion of mothers having an antenatal examination, attending a family planning clinic, and discussing birth control with their GP. Unintended pregnancies were more common among working class women. Bone (1973) also found that women from the non-manua1 classes make more use of family planning services than those from the manual classes. This was true both for married and for unmarried women. Similar differences have been found in presentation for post-natal examination (Douglas and Rowntree, 1949) and (by Gordon, 1951) immunisation, ante-natal and post natal supervision and uptake of vitamin foods. The National Child Development Study (1958 birth cohort) found substantial differences in immunisation rates in children aged 7, as well as in attendance at the dentist. Among women, it has been found that those in classes 4 and 5 are much less likely to be screened for cervical cancers even though mortality from this condition is much higher in these classes than in the non-manual classes. In the Acheson report, the findings were much the same as The Black Report. The Acheson Report has also shown that health was improving but more for the higher than lower social classes. Premature mortality, that is death before age 65, is higher among people who are unskilled. If all men in this age group had the same death rates as those in classes I and II, it is estimated that there would have been over 17,000 fewer deaths each year from 1991 to 1993. Deaths from accidents and suicide occur at relatively young ages and each contribute nearly as much to overall years of working life lost as coronary heart disease. Death rates from all three causes are higher among those in the lower social classes, and markedly so among those in class V (Office for National Statistics and Blane Drever 1998). In adulthood, being overweight is a measure of possible ill health, with obesity a risk factor for many chronic diseases. There is a marked social class gradient in obesity which is greater among women than among men. (Colhoun and Prescott-Clarke, 1996), (Prescott-Clarke and Primatesta 1997), (Prescott-Clarke and Primatesta 1998). In 1996, 25 per cent of women in class V were classified as obese compared to 14 per cent of women in class I. Another indicator of poor health is raised blood pressure. There is a clear social class differential among women, with those in higher classes being less likely than those in the manual classes to have hypertension. In 1996, 17 per cent of women in class I and 24 per cent in class V had hypertension. There was no such difference for men where the comparable proportions were 20 per cent and 21 per cent respectively (Prescott-Clarke and Primatesta 1997). Across different ethnic groups, there are very different rates of unemployment. Those from minority ethnic groups have higher rates than the white population. Black men have particularly high unemployment rates as do Pakistani and Bangladeshi women (Office for National Statistics 1998). Between 1982 and 1992, there was a steep increase in the number of households accepted by Local Authorities as homeless. Since then, there has been a decrease of about a quarter. Of the 166,000 households classified as homeless in 1997, over 103,000 were accepted by local authorities to be unintentionally homeless and in priority need. Over half of households accepted by local authorities as homeless had dependent children and a further tenth had a pregnant household member (Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions 1997 and 1998). There is a clear social class gradient for both men and women in the proportion who smoke. In 1996, this ranged from 12 per cent of professional men to 41 per cent of men in unskilled manual occupations and from 11 per cent to 36 per cent for women (Office for National Statistics 1998). In spite of the major class differences in dependence on alcohol in men (Meltzer et al 1995), there are very small differences in the reported quantities consumed. This is not the case among women where higher consumption is related to higher social class (Office for National Statistics 1998). People in lower socioeconomic groups tend to eat less fruit and vegetables, and less food which is rich in dietary fibre. As a consequence, they have lower intakes of anti-oxidant and other vitamins, and some minerals, than those in higher socioeconomic groups (Colhoun and Prescott-Clarke 1996), (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1996), (Department of Health 1989), (Gregory et al 1990), (Gregory et al 1995). One aspect of dietary behaviour that affects the health of infants is the incidence of breastfeeding. Six weeks after birth, almost three quarters of babies in class I households are still breastfed. This declines with class to less than one quarter of babies in class V. The differences between classes in rates of breastfeeding at six weeks has narrowed slightly between 1985 and 1995 (Foster et al 1997). Class inequalities in health have been accounted for in a number of different ways. The report of the DHSS Inequalities in Health Working Group The Black Report lists four types of explanation. These are inequality as an artefact, inequality as natural selection, inequality as material deprivation and inequality as cultural deprivation. The artefact explanation argues that inequalities in health are not real but artificial. They are an effect produced in the attempt to measure something which is more complicated than the tools of measurement can appreciate. It is argued that changes in the occupational structure are likely to combine with age to confound any attempt to measure inequality in mortality even at one point in time. It is suggested that the age structure of social class 5 is likely to be biased towards older workers because younger recruits to the labour force will have entered better paid, more skilled occupations, that have expanded since the war. Since the mortality risk increases with the age, this effect is likely to enlarge the rate of social class 5 as a whole. If so, the observed gradient is really caused by the skewed age structure of the unskilled manual class rather than by the poorer health of its members. The most persuasive attempt to explain health inequalities as the outcome of a process natural selection, has been put forward by the statistician, Jon Stern. He argues that those people with better health move up the social class ladder and those with poorer health move down the social class ladder (Stern 1983). Stern defines health as a fixed or genetic property of individuals largely independent of their immediate social and economic environment. His argument rests on the assumption that health itself increases the probability of social mobility and that the class structure permits movement up and down. This means that no matter how deprived the social background, a genetic potentiality for good health will enable a person to overcome material disadvantage and climb out of poverty. Material deprivation means a shortage of the material resources on which healthy human existence depends. This means that health is directly affected by the material circumstances in which people live. In less developed societies (poor housing) its effects may appear in very high death rates from diseases primarily caused by malnutrition and exposure. People in poverty may not be able to afford or access healthy foods to stay healthy or they may become ill more often because of poorly heated homes. Health inequality as cultural deprivation means that the poor have a self destructive culture which leads them to become ill because of the lifestyles and personal habits in which they engage, for example, smoking, alcohol, poor diet and lack of exercise, but these poor health behaviours are also a strategy to cope with the persistent material deprivation they experience. The psycho social explanation suggests that long term chronic stresses are unevenly distributed in society, basically in line with class position (structural inequalities). The impact of stresses depends on how individuals view them, subjectively, and deal with them. This, in turn, depends on the buffering resources we have in terms of personality, social background, location in the social structure, education, financial resources, and the supportiveness of the social environment. The social environment and the social location can generate self efficacy which is a feeling of personal control, mastery over ones life, instrumentalism (opposite concept to fatalism, powerlessness, learned helplessness). Self efficacy is the extent to which individuals see themselves in control of the forces which have a significant influence on their lives. Self efficacy is linked to self esteem, self concept, social support and individuals coping style. In other words, the psycho-social approach forges a link between class position and vulnerability to social stresses. Wilkinson et al (1990) discuss a social cohesion approach and argue that social and power inequalities (i.e. authoritarian hierarchies and non democratic social organisations, and potential status inequalities such as gender and ethnicity) will affect the quality of social relationships. Where inequalities produce anger, frustration, fear insecurity and negative emotion, social relations will suffer. Better health is linked to better social relations, through trust, more security, more social support, more self esteem, self respect, a sense of belonging and less financial and material disadvantage. Thus democratic and participatory styles of social organisation from the family to political organisations have a health enhancing effect. A life course theory regards health as reflecting the patterns of social, psychological and biological advantages and disadvantages experienced by the individual over time. A life course theory of health inequality regards these patterns as being profoundly affected by the position of individuals and families in social and economic structures and hierarchies of status. However, these links themselves depend on the political and cultural environment, which means that there is a need for a life course political economy of health, which examines the ways in which economic and social policies influence the accumulation of material and psycho social risk. The ways in which advantages and disadvantages combine over the life course influence both how long each individual may spend in good health, and also what form of illness they may acquire. In conclusion, there are many inequalities in health and all the findings from The Black Report in 1980 are still around today, which was shown in The Acheson Report. The table below shows the standardised mortality rates (SMRs) for ten equal-sized geographical areas in terms of population (or deciles). SMRs which are greater than 100 indicate higher chances of mortality, all relative to the national average. The table demonstrates a continuing polarisation in mortality rates. People living in the best areas have an improving life expectancy, whilst those in the worst areas face a decline, to such an extent that by 1998, those in the worst areas were twice as likely to die by the age of 65 as those in the best areasgraph showing Standardised mortality ratios for deaths under 65 in Britain by deciles of population, 1950-1998 graph showing Health inequalities in infant mortality (by social class for sole registrations)